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KSEHRIGHT DEPOSHV 






A 

MANUAL 

OF 

TECHNICAL 

ENGLISH 



A 

Manual of Technical English 



Supplementary Exercises 

and 

Calendar 



by 
J. Herman Wharton 

Assistant Professor of English 



The L. C. Smith College of Applied Science 

Syracuse University 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

1919 



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IP* 



Copyright, 1919, by J. Herman Wharton 



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CI.A512931 


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PREFACE 

This little volume represents no attempt to put forth a 

finished textbook for a course in English composition. It is 

designed merely to bring together in convenient form material 

which the Department of English in the College of Applied 

Science at Syracuse University has for years found to be useful 

in a freshman course in technical English. It is supplementary 

to the regular texts of the course, furnishing course directions, 

additional matters of theory, and many practical exercises. It 

makes no claim to completeness or scholarship, but is intended 

simply to provide the student with a necessary working manual 

and guide. 

J. H. W. 

Syracuse University, 
January, 1919. 



/ , 



Mend your speech a little. 
Lest it may mar your fortunes. 

—King Lear. I, i. 96-97. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Directions for the Course 7 

II. Spelling :.. 17 

III. Punctuation 32 

IV. Accuracy 42 

V. Condensation : 56 

VI. The Paragraph 67 

VII. Coherence 76 

VIII. Words 81 

IX. Business Correspondence 87 

X. Technical Description 98 

XL Theme Topics 107 

XII. Reading 114 






Speech was made to open man to man, and not to 
hide him ; to promote commerce, and not betray it. 

Lloyd, State Worthies. I, 503. 









1 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE COURSE 

ENGLISH I is a prescribed freshman course for all engineers 
and foresters. It consists of two hours of recitation based 
upon textbooks and lectures, and two hours of laboratory 
work (writing and correction under the instructor's supervision) 
each week for one year. 

Recitatiox. The student is expected to be prepared to recite 
orally, not only upon the advance assignment for the day, but 
also upon the work covered in the previous class period. When 
called upon, the student is to rise at once, stand at attention, and 
give the required information in a clear, firm voice, enunciating 
distinctly, and using concise but complete sentences. He will 
resume his seat only at the instructor's direction. 

Laboratory. As the laboratory period is designed primarily 
for the writing and correction of themes, the student is required 
to bring to every such period the necessary writing material. 
All laboratory work must be approved by the instructor before 
the student leaves the room. 

THEMES 

Kixd. The work in written composition consists of long and 
short themes, home themes and class themes, on topics approved 
by the instructor. The emphasis in engineering English is 
upon exposition. The best theme material will be found in the 
student's own experience and observation, in the lecture room 
and in the laboratory of his technical courses. Success in self- 
expression comes only through independent thinking. 

Credit. As the student's progress in English I is determined 
chiefly by his ability to express himself, all assigned written 
work must be submitted when due. Failure to complete satisfac- 
torily the required number of themes will insure a failure for 
the course. Late work is not accepted except by special 
permission. 

The grade of the original theme is tentative and will become 
a permanent credit only when the correction has been approved. 

All themes are filed in the English office until the end of the 
year, when they are destroyed. Students should keep copies of 
themes they wish to preserve. 



Theme Paper. The regulation college theme paper (8 hy 10 
ruled on one side) is required for all written work except 
business letters, for which unruled white bond paper, 8% hy 11, 
shall be used. 

Manuscript. Write on one side of the paper only and use ink. 
Slovenliness is not tdlerated, whereas neatness always enhances 
the value of a paper. 

(a) Center the title on the first line of the first page, capitaliz- 
ing the first letter of each important word. 

(b) Observe an even margin on the left. 

(c) Indent the first line of each paragraph about an inch. 

(d) Write your name and the page number in the upper right- 
hand corner of each page. 

(e) Do not enclose within parentheses or cross out words 
used in error; erase them neatly. 

The Composition. Keep in mind the following two basic 
precepts: 

(a) Prevision or careful planning is essential to the success 
of any theme, for no amount of veneer can overcome structural 
unfitness. Make an outline. 

(b) Once the plan has been fixed and the theme written in 
full, the best insurance is a thorough revision with a view to 
improving, the diction, phrasing, and mechanical details (Sp., 
Cap., P., etc.). 

By observing these two cautions, one may avoid the embarrass- 
ment of having a -first draft rejected. 

Sources. When writing from sources other than observation 
and experience, the student is required to give on the last page 
a full bibliography (author, title, copyright date, volume, page) 
of all works consulted. Quoted matter must be inclosed within 
quotation marks ("/"), but quoting at length is to be discouraged 
in student compositions. No excuse will be accepted for failure 
to give credit for borrowed material. 

Endorsement. The endorsement shall be legibly written at 
the top of the upper side of the theme when the latter has been 
folded (lengthwise with the creased edge at the right. The 
form is: 

Samuel H. Martin 
English I, Sction I 
December 4, 1918 



Correction. "Revise" on your paper means to rewrite on the 
blank back of the preceding page the correct form in full of 
every sentence containing an error in construction or in diction, 
and to state briefly but in a full sentence the reason for 
every change; to correct in the original manuscript all errors in 
punctuation or capitalization, writing on the opposite page only 
the reasons; and to write out on the opposite page each mis- 
spelled word ten times in its correct form. Every mark made 
upon the paper by the instructor has its significance; if you do 
not understand it, consult the instructor. Do not erase any of 
the critical symbols. 

"Rewrite" means to do all that is required in "revision" and 
then to rewrite the whole theme according to the instructor's 
marginal suggestions. Fold the rewritten theme inside the 
original and return both to the instructor. 

Models for Theme Correction 
The following are typical examples of the method of revision: 
Gr. [There was only one dwelling house and a barn in 

sight.] (Was should be were to agree in number with 
the compound subject.) There were only one dwelling 
house and a barn in sight. 
Ant. [Soon we see a black object under the smoke, which 
gradually grows larger as it approaches.] (As the 
antecedent of ivhich is object, not smoke, object must be 
brought nearer the pronoun.) Soon we see under the 
smoke a black object, which gradually grows larger as 
it approaches. 
Coh. s. [He was unable to give an account of himself during the 
interval, so he was charged with the crime.] (The 
relative adverb so should not be used independently as 
a loose connective between clauses.) As he was unable 
to give an account of himself during the interval, he 
was charged with the crime. 
Ace. [Having once again started on our way up the river, 
our trials of the morning were soon forgotten . . . 
(The sentence is inaccurate because the dangling 
participle having started seems to modify trials, whereas 
it should modify the unexpressed agent.) Having once 
again started on our way up the river, we soon forgot 
our trials of the morning. 
W. w. [He has been very lax in the observation of the rules.] 
(Observation, the act of watching, is improperly used for 
9 



observance, the act of heeding or obeying.) He has been 
very lax in the observance of the rules. 

P. [I mean the book, which I bought yesterday'.] (No 

comma is required after book, because the relative 
clause introduced by which is restrictive.) I mean the 
book which I bought yesterday. 

Note: Words italicized in print should be underlined in manuscript. 
Critical Marks Interpreted 

Ace. Thought inaccurate (dangling modifiers, misplaced 
modifiers, etc.) 

Ant. Antecedent trouble. Make the pronoun reference 
clear. 

Cap. Capitalization faulty, 3%. Use capital, or do not, as 
required. 

C. I. Consult the instructor. Failure to do so reduces the 
theme grade 5%. 

Col. Colloquial. Use a more dignified expression. 

Cond. Too wordy. Condense. 

Conn. Connection faulty. Use a linking word or phrase. 

Coh. Coherence. The organization of the sentence (s), the 
paragraph (j[), or the theme (T) is seriously at fault. 

E. Emphasis false or wanting. Of the two emphatic posi- 

tions, the beginning and the end, the end is usually the 
stronger. 

G. Good usage violated in phrase or word. 

Gr. Ungrammatical, 5%. Two errors in grammar will cause 

the failure of any paper. 

H. Haste and carelessness, 5%. 

Hk. Hackneyed. Be original. 

K. Awkward. Recast to overcome the clumsiness of phrase. 

O. or A. Necessary words omitted. 

P. Punctuation faulty, 3%. 

Prop. Proportion violated. Give space according to the rela- 
tive importance of the ideas. 

Rep. Useless repetition. Use a synonym, or condense. 

Sp. Misspelling, 5%. Use the dictionary. Write the correct 

form ten times. 

Syl. Syllabication faulty. Divide the word between syllables. 

Trans. Faulty transition. Change the order of the sentence to 
bring the related parts closer together, or supply a 
sentence, clause, phrase, or word that will definitely 
establish the relationship. 
10 



U. ff Unity of paragraph violated. Too little or too much in 

the paragraph. Test out the material by reference to 

the topic sentence. 
IT. s. Unity of sentence violated. Your sentence contains more 

than one thought or less than one thought. 5%. 
U. T. Unity of theme violated. The theme is underdeveloped 

or contains irrelevant matter. See your topic statement 

at the beginning. 
W. w. See the dictionary. 
X. Obvious fault. 

|| Cst. Put in parallel construction. 
? Doubtful. Verify. 

F. E. Failure. 
F. R. Serious failure. 

PRIZE IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION 

1. Name. The College of Applied Science Award for Merit in 
English Composition. 

2. Description. Twenty-five dollars in cash offered by an 
alumnus of Syracuse University for the best thesis in the 
Department of English. 

3. Subject of Thesis. A definite technical problem of interest 
to engineers. Other things being equal, preference will be shown 
those papers which represent independent research in some 
special field of engineering. 

4. Length of Thesis. Not less than 1,000 words nor more 
than 2,000. 

5. Form of Thesis. Typewritten; pages numbered; firmly 
secured in note-book cover. 

6. Thesis to be Submitted Anonymously to the English 
Department, May 1, accompanied by a sealed envelope enclosing 
the name of the contestant; both thesis and envelope to be 
marked by a special symbol for identification. 

7. Award. Theses will be judged by two committees; one for 
content, one for expression. 

8. Eligibility. The competition is open to any undergraduate 
(in approved standing) taking a course in English in the College 
of Applied Science. 

9. Prospective Contestants should Notify the English Depart- 
ment not later than April 1 of their intention to enter the 
contest. 

11 



10. Announcement of Award. The name of the winning 
student will be published in the Syracuse Daily Orange about 
May 15 and in the University catalog of the ensuing year. 

11. Contestants should typewrite theses in duplicate, as all 
copies submitted become the property of the English Depart- 
ment. 

12. For further information students should consult the De- 
partment. 

SCHEDULE OF ASSIGNMENTS FOR SEMESTER II 

The following schedule of assignments will be strictly adhered 
to in all classes. If for any reason (absence of instructor, holi- 
day, etc.) an assignment has not been taken up at the appointed 
class hour, it should be reviewed, together with the advance 
assignment, for the next recitation period. Absence from class 
excuses no one from the requirements of the course for that 
class. If any one must attend class unprepared, he should notify 
the instructor before the recitation begins. 

Written work is due at the class hour designated in the 
schedule and will not be accepted later except by special per- 
mission. Corrected work must be in not later than the second 
class period after it has been returned to the student by the 
instructor. 

Every student should bring theme paper to the double period, 
preparatory to writing a class theme or doing other written 
exercises. 
Note: M = MacCracken and Sandison's Manual of Good English. 

A = Aydelotte's English and Engineering. 
Week I, Feb. 3: 

1. The paragraph — M. pp. 143-155; note well the examples; 

structure. 

2. The paragraph — M. pp. 155-161, exercises 1 and 2 (as 

assigned) ; structure. 

3. The paragraph — M. pp. 161-166, exercises 3 to 6 (as 

assigned); links. 
Week II, Feb. 10: 

1. The paragraph — M. pp. 167-170, make corrections in text- 

book; methods of paragraph develop- 
ment. 

2. The paragraph — A. pp. 4-14 (Bennett) ; analyze for 

paragraphs. 

12 



3. Oral exposition of some process — 4 pp. written out to hand 
in. 
Week III, Feb. 17: 

1. The paragraph — A. pp. 92-106 (Morison); paragraph 

analysis; note also sentence structure. 

2. The paragraph — A. pp. 125-130 (Wialker) ; oral exposition 

(4 minutes) based on content. 

3. Organic structure: the long theme — A. pp. 107-124 (John- 

son) ; outline to be indicated in margins 
of text. 
Week IV, Feb. 24: 

1. Organic structure — A. pp. 85-91 (Morison); outline to be 

written out to hand in. 

2. Organic structure — A. pp. 251-262 (Atkinson); indicate 

outline in margins of text. 

3. Organic structure — A. pp. 262-273 (Atkinson) ; oral exposi- 

tion (4 min.) based on content of pp. 
85-.91 or pp. 251-273. 
Week V, March 3 : 

1. Organic structure — A. pp. 197-217 (Huxley). Does Huxley 

in any sense apply the scientific method 
in the treatment of his thesis? 

2. Style — A. pp. 15-27 (Harrison); note the method of adapta- 

tion to the reader. Does Harrison "put 
his ideas in clear and natural terms?" 
(see p. 20). 

3. Words— M. pp. 1-13. 
Week VI, March 10: 

1. Words— M. pp. 13-28. 

2. Words— M. pp. 28-43. 

3 Words — M. pp. 43-53, including exercise 1 (as assigned) ; see 
dictionary. 
Week VII, March 17: 

1. Words— M. p. 54, exercise 2 — to be written out to hand in. 

2. Words — M. pp. 55-58, exercises 3, 4, 5, 6 — write out 3 and 5. 

3. Oral exposition of some special problem — 4 pp. written out 

to hand in. 
Week VIII, March 24: 

1. Words — A. pp. 62-76 (Lounsbury) ; state briefly in your own 
words what is meant by the standard 
of usage. 
— M. p. 58, exercise 8 (1). 
13 



2. Words— A 



3. Words— A. 



pp. 



283-291 (Stevenson); characterize the 
diction; . discriminate synonyms as 
assigned from the text. 
308-318 (Carlyle) ; compare Carlyle's 
diction with Stevenson's; discriminate 
synonyms as assigned from the text. 



Week IX, March 31: 

1. Mid-semester quiz. 

2. The sentence — A. 



3. The sentence — A. 



Week X, April 7: 
1. The sentence- 



2. Condensation — M. 



3. Condensation- 



Review all work of semester to date, 
pp. 176-196 (Newman), especially pp. 
177-182; indicate in the margins of the 
text the kinds of sentence (simple, 
complex, compound, loose, periodic, 
balanced) in the latter pages. What is 
the predominant sentence type? Effec- 
tive ? Why ? 

pp. 218-240 (Arnold) ; read rapidly for 
the main thought; compare the prevail- 
ing sentence type with that of Newman 
in effectiveness. 



pp. 292-307 (Emerson) ; compare the pre- 
vailing sentence type with that of New- 
man and that of Arnold; what is its 
special virtue? its disadvantages? 
p. 57, exercise 7 — write out to hand in. 
Additional exercises as assigned. 
Exercises as assigned — write out to hand in. 



Week XI, April 14: 

1. Business correspondence — M pp. 264-269; A. pp. 45-61 

(Harrington), especially pp. 50-53, on 
the technical man and business letter 
writing. 

2. Business correspondence — M. pp. 269-280; bring sample busi- 

ness letters to class for discussion. 
Hand in three subjects for the final long 
exposition; state each in a full sentence, 
giving a definite idea of what you 
expect to do. 

3. (Easter vacation.) 



14 



Week XII, April 21 : 

1. (Easter vacation.) 

2. (Easter vacation.) 

3. Business correspondence — Hand in a one-page letter order- 

ing goods (3 items); use 8 by 10 
unruled bond paper Sy 2 by 11. 
—A. pp. 274-282 (Stevenson). What 
qualities of Stevenson's style should 
every business letter contain? 
Week XIII, April 28: 

1. Business correspondence — A. pp. 28-44 (Lewes). Oral 

exposition (4 min.) — show how certain 
principles laid down by Lewes may be 
effectively applied to the writing of 
business letters. 

2. Business correspondence — -Hand in a two-page letter con- 

cerning the sale or exchange of prop 
erty, or the repair of a damaged auto- 
bile or some piece of apparatus; be 
explicit. 
3. Business correspondence — Hand in a one-page letter of 
complaint concerning the non-delivery 
of goods, or a letter of collection; guard 
carefully the tone of the letter. 
— A. pp. 319-327 (Carlyle); be prepared to 
state orally the gist of the essay; 
characterize the style. 
Week XIV, May 5 : 

1. Business correspondence — Hand in a two-page letter of 
application for a summer position; put 
yourself so far as possible in the em- 
ployer's place. 
Technical description — 'Note carefully the method of the 
models read in class by the instructor. 
2. Technical description — Be prepared to state orally the 
principles of technical description as 
illustrated in class last time. 
— A. pp. 131-139 (Mann); note the author's 
method of analyzing a problem, confirm- 

15 



ing rumor or personal opinion, testing 
results, etc. What is the professional 
demand? Cf. Johnson, A. p. 107. 
3. Technical description — Hand in a two-page technical descrip- 
tion of some simple, familiar mechan- 
ical appliance. 
—A. pp. 328-334 (Carlyle); note the means 
of emphasis. 
Week XV, May 12: 

1. Review of all principles of composition — A. pp. 140-160 

(Huxley) ; read rapidly for content; 
note Huxley's use of illustrations and 
instances. 

2. Review continued— A. pp. 161-175 (Tyndall) ; note the cita- 

tion of authorities; find instances of 
emphasis by repetition. 

3. Review continued — A pp. 335-357 (Ruskin) ; read rapidly for 

content; note the method of adaptation, 
the use of illustration and contrast; 
characterize the style. (Cf. Carlyle, 
Newman, Stevenson.) 
Week XVI, May 19: 

1. Final long exposition (7-8 pp.) due at class hour. Arrange 

for conference with instructor. 

2. No class. Read outside, A. pp. 358-390 (Ruskin). 
Individual conferences (15 minutes) during the week as 

scheduled. Room 35. 
Week XVII, May 26 : 
Examinations. 



16 



II 

SPELLING 

The Importance of Spelling 

THE Department of English has no apologiesi to offer for de- 
voting a part of its program to a review of Spelling. Experi- 
ence has proved that many of us enter college sadly wanting 
in the ability to spell the common words of our daily intercourse. 
But what is worse, some of us approach the subject with an 
amazing indifference, as if spelling did not, like dress and bear- 
ing, reflect the breeding of the individual. Though punctilious 
to the wth degree in observing other conventions of the day, 
we here mistakenly ignore one of the most settled conventions 
of our time. 

We are living, let us remember, in an age of standards. We 
buy and sell according to standard weights and measures, have 
a standard medium of exchange, standard postage rates, stand- 
ard-gaged railroads, standard processes in science, standard re- 
quirements in education, and we live by moral standards codi- 
fied into laws. We have found it expedient as a people to con- 
form to these standards or laws, and are now seeking con- 
stantly to extend their influence. Non-conformity anywhere 
makes one a marked man. English orthography is no exception. 
Since the advent of the printing press about 1450, and especially 
since the publication of Dr. Samuel Johnson's dictionary in 
1755, our spelling has been reduced from the chaos of Chaucer's 
time to a standard that, for all practical purposes, is rigidly 
fixed — fixed because it bears the stamp of social sanction. And 
here, as elsewhere, if one must offend against social custom, 
he must face social ostracism. It is a matter of good breeding., 
then, if not of expediency, to conform our spelling to the dic- 
tionary standard. 

But so much might be said of any college freshman. What 
of the technical student? Just this: Every engineer and 
forester knows that every department of his profession demands 
the utmost accuracy. It is not a matter of whim, but of con- 
viction. In the practice of his profession he must be infallible 
if ever mortal could ; it is the popular claim upon him. He 
is judged, not by what he is, but by what he does; not by 

17 



unembodied ideas, but by the concrete application of those ideas 
in real constructive work, and by the expression of those ideas 
and the record of that work in a form of language that shall 
at once convince and win respect. Inaccuracy in the latter will 
argue inaccuracy in the former. At any rate, that is the testi- 
mony of responsible employers and of graduate practicing en- 
gineers. The want of precision in minor matters, they tell us, 
may betray beneath the surface a fundamental weakness of 
character or intellect for which no amount of veneer can com- 
pensate, a betrayal whose damning influence a lifetime some- 
times cannot erase. 

Slovenly manuscript and careless spelling — every teacher will 
bear witness — generally accompany a muddy functioning of the 
mind and belong to the same category of discrediting inaccura- 
cies; whereas precision and orderliness in form generally indi- 
cate at least a determined effort to give one's best — and that 
attitude will lead inevitably to the clearing of the most be- 
fogged mind. 

The point is that, in this day when the dictionary and other 
works of reference are ready at hand to every business and 
professional man, each misspelling cries out your inefficiency. 
You would not under any consideration deliberately insert a 
misspelled word into a letter of application; why, then, employ 
makeshift spellings anywhere? You cannot plead ignorance of 
the law, with books at every turn. There is no legitimate 
excuse. If we misspell, it is because we are content to do so. 

On the other hand, a willingness to wrestle with the problem 
implies a readiness to seize and apply industriously all the prof- 
fered aids to good spelling. 

General Suggestions 

As safeguards against error, the following general suggestions 
should be borne in mind: 

1. Read as widely as you can, cultivating the habit of accu- 
rate observation; learn to see words correctly, so that words 
like guage (for gauge) look wrong. 

2. In preparing your textbook assignments, read aloud so 
far as practicable, pronouncing each word correctly and asso- 
ciating the spelling with the sound. Observe that athletics is 
not pronounced atheletics; nor instantaneous, instaneous. 

18 



3. Wherever possible, apply the principle of analogy. Though 
this is not always a safe guide, it is frequently a convenient 
help in the spelling of derivative words containing parts identi- 
cal in sound to those of some other word. Compare, for in- 
stance, inference, deference, conference; definite, infinite; in- 
ferable, transferable. 

4. So far as possible, profit by your knowledge of the de- 
rivation of the word. Compare emigrant (L. e, from, + migro, 
move), immigrant (in, into, + migro) ; describe (L. de, fully, -f 
scribo, write); discredit (L. dis, not, + credo, believe). 

5. Consult the dictionary freely. Never cheat yourself by 
substituting a poorer word for one you cannot spell. 

6. Keep a list of all words you misspell. If you do this con- 
sistently, you will be disillusioned; you will probably find that 
you are misspelling not a great many words, but a few words 
a great many times. Once you have discovered this, your task 
is the simple one of mastering these few troublesome words. 

Special Rules 

Besides adopting these general preventives, we may put to 
a very practical purpose four specific rules. These should be 
memorized and intelligently applied. 

I. Pinal silent e preceded by a consonant is usually retained 
before a suffix beginning with a consonant. Example: measure + 
ment = measurement; waste + ful = wasteful. Exceptions : judg- 
ment, acknowledgment, abridgment, lodgment. 

II. Final silent e is usually dropped before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel, except in the endings ce and ge, which retain the 
e before a suffix beginning with a or o. Example: sale + able = 
salable; wire + ing = wiring ; service + able = serviceable; advan- 
tage + ous = advantageous. 

III. Monosyllables and other words accented on the last 
syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel 
or by a vowel preceded by qu, double the final consonant on 
taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. Example: plan + ed — 
planned; infer + ed — inferred; omit + ing = omitting ; quit + 
ing — quitting ; but traveling (note accent), repeated (two 
vowels). 

19 



IV. In the digraph, ei or ie, e follows i, except after c or 
when the digraph is pronounced with an a sound as in eight. 
Examples: ceiling, chief, receive, relieve, toeight. Exceptions: 
either, leisure, counterfeit, forfeit, surfeit, foreign, sovereign, 
seize, weird, heifer, sleight, height. You can fix this rule by 
remembering Alice and Celia, in which e follows c, and i follows 
I (or any other letter). 

These four rules will meet our most common needs in our 
attempt to eliminate bad spelling. It is also convenient to re- 
member that final y preceded by a consonant usually becomes i 
before a suffix not beginning with i (dictionary + es = diction- 
aries; lonely + ness = loneliness ; but fly + ing = flying, obey + 
ed = obeyed) ; that exceed, proceed, and succeed are the only 
words ending in -ceed, and supersede the only one in -sede; that 
generally, of two forms of the same word", the simpler is to be 
preferred (catalog, not catalogue; program, not programme; 
flavor, not flavour, used in England) ; that the dictionary is the 
court of last resort, and that of two forms in the dictionary the 
first is usually the common or preferred one. 

NOTE. — For further rules on spelling, see MacCracken and 
Sandison's "Manual of Good English," pp. 231-233, 240, 243-246; the 
introductions to the New Standard Dictionary (1913, Funk & Wag-nails) 
and "Webster's New International Dictionary (1909, G. & C. Merriam) ; 
and the United States Government Style Book (Government Printing 
Office, Washington). 



20 



WORDS FREQUENTLY MISSPELLED IN ENGLISH I 

No student will be given a passing grade in English I until 
he has attained a grade of 90 in an examination on the follow- 
ing list: 



abbreviate 

absorption 

abundance 

accept (receive), except (omit) 

abutting 

accelerating 

accessibility 

accessories 

accidentally 

accommodation 

accomplish 

accumulate 

accurately 

achievement 

acknowledgment 

acquaintance 

acquiring 

across 

adequately 

adherence 

adjacent 

adjustable 

admissible 

advantageous 

advertise 

affect (change), effect (accomplish) 

advise (v), advice (n) 

alcohol 

alinement, or alignment 

all right (never alright) 

almost 

already 

altogether 

alter (change) 



amateur 

ammeter 

among 

analysis, analyses (pi.) 

analyze 

arctic 

apparatus 

appearance 

appreciate 

approximately 

armature 

arrangement 

assistance 

association 

athletics 

attendance 

audible 

auxiliary 

B 
balance 
beginning 
believe 
benefited 
besieging 
bituminous 
boundary 
Britain 
bulletin 
buoyant 
business 

C 

calcimine 

calendar 

calibration 



21 



cancelation 
canvas (cloth) 
canvass (review) 
capital (adjective) 
capitol (noun) 
carbureter 
casualty- 
catalog 
ceiling 
cemetery- 
censor (examine), censure 
changeable 
chauffeur 
chief 

choose (present tense) 
clothes (garments) 
cite (tell), site (location) 

(vision) 
coarse (adj.) 
column 
combustible 
comma 
committee 
commutator 
comparative 
competent 

complement (completes) 
compliment (commends) 
comprehensible 
compromise 
concede 
conferred 
conference 
conscientious 
consistent 
consul 
contagious 
convenience 
convertible 
correspondence 
council (advisory body) 



(blame) 



counsel (advice) 

countenance 

courtesy 

credible 

criticism 

criticize 

current (stream) 

currant (fruit) 

curriculum 

custom 

cylinder 



datum, data (pi.) 
deceive 

decent (proper) 
deficient 
, sight definite 
delegate 

dependent (noun and adj.) 
descent (noun, down) 
descendant (noun) 
describe 
destroy 
development 

device (n), devise (v) 
difference 
dilapidated 
dining 
disappoint 
discouragement 
disease 
distribute 
divisible 
dormitory 

E 
eighth (ordinal) 
eligible 
eliminate 
elliptical 
emanate 
embarrass 



22 



emigrant ( — from), immigrant 

( — into) 
eminent 
encyclopedia 
endeavor 
enterprise 
equipped 
exaggerate 
excellence 
excessive 
exemplary- 
exercise 
exhaust 
existence 
exorbitant 
experience 
experiment 
explanation 
extraordinary 
extravagant 



faculty 

familiar 

February 

fiery 

forcible 

foreigner 

forfeiture 

formally (with due form) 

formerly (previously) 

forty 

fourteen 

franchise 

freshman (adj.) 

fulfill, or fulfil 



gage, or gauge 
government 
grammar 
grievance 



guardian 
gymnasium 

H 

height 

hemisphere 

hindrance 

homogeneous 

hygienic 

hypotenuse 

I 
identical 
illegible 
imaginary 
imitation 
immediately 
imminent 
incidentally 
indefensible 
indelible 
indestructible 
indispensable 
infallible 
infinite 
inference 
inferred 

ingenious (clever) 
ingenuous (frank) 
inhabitants 
instantaneous 
intelligible 
interfered 
invitation 
iridescent 
irregular 
irrelevant 
irreparable 
irresistible 
irresponsible 
irrigation 
its (possessive) 



judgment 


occasionally 




occurrence 


K 


omission 


knowledge 


operating 


L 


opportunity 


laboratory 


originating 
ostensible 


later, latter 




lavatory 


P 


lead (n. and pres. tense v.) 


parallel 


led (past t. v.) 


paraphernalia 


leisure 


parliamentary 


library 


particular 


lightening (participle) 


partner 


lightning (electricity) 


patronize 


literature 


passable 


locomotive 


peaceable 


loose (adj.) 


perceptible 


lose (verb) 


performance 


lubricator 


perhaps 


M 


permanent 


maintenance 


permissible 


malleable 


perseverance 


management 


persuade 


manufacturer 


pervade 


merchandise 


phenomenon (singular ) 


messenger 


phenomena (plural) 


metallurgy 


phosphorus (noun) 


mimicking 


planned 


miniature 


plausible 


missent 


possession 


misspell 


potential 


muscular 


precede 




predecessor 


N 


preference 


naphtha 


preferred 


navigable 


prejudice 


necessary 


preliminary 


neighbor 


preparation 


ninety 


prevalent 


noticeable 


principal (chief) 



24 



principle (rule) 

privilege 

probably 

procedure 

proceed 

professional 

profitable 

pronunciation 

propagate 

propeller 

prophecy (noun) 

prophesy (verb) 

pursue 

Q 

quiet (still) 
quite (entirely) 



receive 

receipt 

recognize 

recommend 

recompense 

reference 

regretted 

relieve 

remittance 

reparation 

repetition 

reservoir 

resilience 

resistance 

restaurant 

ridiculous 

riveted 

rotary 

S 

sacrifice 
safety 
salary 
schedule 



seize 

separate 

serviceable 

shoeing 

shone (p. p. shine) 

sieve 

significance 

similar 

sophomore 

specimen 

spherical 

stationary (adj.) 

stationery (noun) 

succeed 

sufficient 

suffrage 

superintendent 

supersede 

supervisor 

surprise 

susceptible 

syllable 

symmetry 

synonym 

systematic 

T 
tangible 
temperament 
than (conj.; not then) 
their (possessive) 
together 
traceable 
transferable 
Tuesday 
typical 

U 

unanimous 
unconsciously 
until (but till) 
usually 



25 



V 

vacancy 

vaccination 

vegetable 

vehement 

vertical 

vice versa 

victuals 

village 



W 

weather 

Wednesday 

whether 

wield 

wrap (cover) 

writer 

writing 



LIST OF MISSPELLINGS 

For your own satisfaction, record here all words incorrectly 
spelled in your themes, and review them daily until you have 
mastered them. 



Correct Form of Word 



Pronunciation 



Meaning 



2G 



Correct Form of Word 



Pronunciation 



Meaning 



27 



Correct Form of Word 



Pronunciation 



Meaning 



28 



Correct Form of Word 



Pronunciation 



29 



Meaning 



Correct Form of Word 



Pronunciation 



Meaning 



30 



Correct Form of Word 



Pronunciation 



Meaning 



Poor spelling argues inaccuracy, illiteracy, inefficiency! 

31 



Ill 

PUNCTUATION 

PUNCTUATION isi a means to clearness. Unless clearness 
demands the presence of punctuation marks, none should be 
inserted. Just as useless words tend to obscure the thought 
of the sentence, so useless marks tend to defeat the first and 
only purpose of punctuation — clearnesss. 

Punctuation accomplishes this purpose by separating, by 
different degrees of separation, various elements of thought which 
function as distinct units however they may be related to other 
similar units. Naturally, then, the use of unnecessary marks is 
as destructive of clearness as is the omission of marks 
required, for either practice brings the various thought units 
into illogical relationship. 

As a general rule, when the presence or omission of punctua- 
tion fails to affect the interpretation of the thought, by all means 
dispense with it as a convenient but useless tool. Remember 
that the twentieth century capitalizes speed and economy as 
prerequisites to efficiency. Instead of the long, lumbering, 
elaborately punctuated sentences of the last century, we have 
to-day the short, snappy, businesslike sentence which gets 
results, and gets them quickly. The tendency toward shorter 
and less involved sentences has led to a reduction of punctuation 
marks. The fewer the units within the sentence, the less of 
course the need of separative marks. 

Let us observe further that, whereas in early practice the 
abundant and more or less indiscriminate (if not unintelligent) 
use of punctuation served to lessen or destroy the value of the 
individual marks, to-day the decrease in number of marks serves 
to increase the value of each mark we use. Every mark has 
its special significance. It is only when we realize this, that we 
come to punctuate intelligently. 

In practice, punctuation is not nearly so difficult as some 
would have it appear. Many of our textbooks make mountains 
out of molehills in this matter and frighten us off before we 
have ever made an earnest effort to do the thing. Think of 101 
pages of rules! Yet that is what one author hands us as our . 
lesson in punctuation! Is it any wonder that some of us throw 

32 



up our hands in despair? But punctuators are not made in that 
way. No number of rules will insure effective punctuation unless 
the writer uses his own common sense. The man who habitually 
mispunctuates belongs to the same class as those who substitute 
poorer words for those they cannot spell, or who attempt to 
"doctor up" organically bad sentences by means of punctuation 
marks rather than set themselves the task of reconstructing. 
He fails through indolence alone; he refuses to think. But if 
he comes to the problem of punctuation with a clear knowledge 
of the sentence and the relationship of its elements and with a 
willingness to apply that knowledge to the sentence in hand — he 
finds it easy of solution. 

The 101 page of rules then resolve themselves into less than 
a dozen general principles. Though there will always be 
exceptions to rules, the thoughtful application of these general 
principles will enable us to meet each case as it arises. 

College men are ordinarily little concerned with periods (.), 
exclamation points (!), interrogation points (?), dashes ( — ), 
quotation marks ("/"), etc. They use these with a degree of 
certainty. Their real problem lies within the sentence — in the 
use of the comma (,), the semicolon (;), and the colon (:), but 
especially the comma. 

The Rule of the Foot-Rule 

When all three of the latter marks are required in one 
sentence, we may usually apply the "rule of the foot-rule," which 
makes punctuation merely a matter of mensuration. For 
example: 

I shall discuss three ways of making oxygen: first, by elec- 
trolysis of water; second, by the decomposition of potassium 
chlorate; and thirdly, by the decomposition of mercuric oxide. 

Here the comma registers the slightest pause, that setting off 
the parenthetic enumerating adverb; the semicolon, the next 
greater pause, that separating the members of the series which 
already contain commas; and the colon, the greatest pause, that 
separating the general statement from the specific statement of 
the series already containing semicolons. One sees at once the 
analogy to the foot-rule, in which a short perpendicular marks 
off the eighth-inch, a longer perpendicular the quarter-inch, and 
a yet longer the half-inch. 

If but two distinct marks are required, chance favors the 
comma and the semicolon. One may usually prove such a case 

33 



by reasoning up from the comma to the semicolon, or if three 
degrees of separation, to the colon. 

The Comma 
In the use of the comma we have but to keep in mind four 
general principles: 

I. Use the comma to indicate the omission, in the midst of 
the sentence, of a word or words required by the syntax but 
implied by the context, as in the omission of a verb or of con- 
junctions in a series. 

Examples: (1) He was furious; she, calm. (The verb was 
is understood.) 

(2) As an aid to memory, write the thing down and speak it 
aloud so as to receive sensations from it through the hand, the 
eye, the mouth, and the ear. (Note that the presence of and 
between the last two members of a series has no effect upon the 
punctuation between those members.) 

II. Use a comma or commas to separate a non-restrictive 
modifier (participial phrase; relative, result, temporal, concessive, 
or causal clause) from its antecedent and the rest of the 
sentence. 

Examples: (1) The woman, struggling on in the teeth of the 
storm, did not hear the approaching car. 

(2) Crouse College, which stands high above the city, com- 
mands an excellent view of the valley. 

(3) They are almost worn out with their long hours in the 
mill, so that when night comes they have little interest in any- 
thing but rest. 

(4) My father's death occurred in 1885, when I was but a lad. 

(5) I failed in senior English, though I worked faithfully the 
whole year. 

(6) I told him that I would not accept his proposition, as I did 
not care to do business with such a man. 

III. Use a comma or commas to set off from the rest of the 
sentence all words, phrases, and clauses out of their normal 
order, as in some parenthetic constructions and introductory 
elements. 

Examples: (1) Narration, appealing as it does to the imagina- 
tion and the feelings, and dealing as it does with events, must 
move more rapidly than exposition and argument. 

(2) A month later, when you have come to like her immensely, 
you will describe her in terms far more agreeable. 



(3) My father, although he worked hard all his days, seemed 
never to accumulate any means. 

(4) Knowing what the actors are, the reader is quicker to 
comprehend what they do. 

IV. Use a comma or commas to set off from the rest of the 
sentence all elements parenthetic in thought or in construction, 
as the nominative absolute, non-restrictive modifiers, appositive 
elements, adverbial connectives, words in direct address, etc. 

Examples: (1) The material gathered, the next step is to 
organize it. 

(2) The specifications were drawn by Burton, who was sup- 
posed to be an expert. (Cf. II (2)). 

(3) Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist of all times, was the 
gift of England. 

(4) They dare not, on the other hand, deny me the right to 
present my version of the matter. (Cf. III.) 

(5) Mr. Chairman, I rise to a point of order. 

XOTE: A comparison of the examples given shows that it is 
impossible to draw a hard and fast line between the rules as they 
affect certain instances, especially in the case of parenthetic and 
non-restrictive elements. 

Finally, the one rule to which there is no exception is — punc- 
tuate only for clearness. 

The Hyphen 

As a rule the use of the hyphen (-) may be determined by 
four tests: (1) rapidity of pronunciation, (2) the accent, (3) the 
sense, (4) the construction. 

Examples, tests (1) and (2): spoken slowly, a rail" fence' (the 
noun attracts the stress) ; more rapidly, rail'-i'ron (the two words 
stressed almost equally) ; most rapidly, rail' road" (first com- 
ponent stressed). 

Examples, test (3) : Can the two components be construed sepa- 
rately with any other word? In a gray-green cloth, green modifies 
cloth, but gray can modify only green; the two adjectives are 
not in series; hence the hyphen. In time-worn custom, time 
modifies worn and cannot be construed separately with custom. 
In / saw the cave-in. neither cave nor in can be construed sepa- 
rately with any other word. 

Examples, test (4) : Observe that usually the components bear 
an unidiomatic relation to one another. Gray, adjective, modifies 
green, adjective; time, noun, modifies ivorn, particple. Compare 
news-letter, fish-culturist. old -fashioned, cold-blooded. Honey-sweet, 
ice-cold, ivorm-eaten. hair-splittir a. etc. 

35 



Capitalization 

General Rule. Capitalize the initial letter of all proper nouns 
and adjectives, the first word of a sentence and of a direct 
quotation, the important words of titles, and the abbreviations 
of titles. 

Observe that a title preceding a proper name is always capital- 
ized, but modern journalistic practice favors the lower case where 
the title follows the proper name. Example: Professor C. E. 
Adams, but Dr. C. E. Adams, professor of English. 

As in the use of the comma, the present tendency is to 
reduce the number of hyphens and of capitals. 

EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION 
First read the sentence through carefully for its meaning, then 
insert such punctuation marks as clearness demands, and state 
briefly but in full sentences the reasons for all marks used. 

1. The Saxons and Angles when they entered Britain were 
brought into contact with a Celtic-speaking population. 

2. But in general the Saxon words are simple homely and 
substantial fitted for everyday events and natural feelings while 
the French and Latin words are elegant dignified and artificial 
fitted for the pomp of rhetoric the subtility of disputation or the 
courtly reserve of diplomacy. 

3. The wrongs against which we now array ourselves are not 
common wrongs they cry out to the very roots of human life. 

4. On the other hand British troops have already attacked 
the German harbor of Dar-es-Salaam where they have destroyed 
the wireless telegraph station. 

5. A prize may be brought into the territory when it is 
incapable of navigating or cannot keep the sea or is short of 
fuel or of food stores. 

6. If a sentence has a compound subject mention the sub- 
stantives that compose it if the sentence has a compound 
predicate mention the verbs. 

7. Consequently one often notes in the older English classics 
methods of expression which though formerly correct are 
ungrammatical now. 

8. Success in sentence making requires the endeavor to do 
three things first to make the sentence clear in itself second to 
make it strong in relation to its neighbors in the paragraph and 
third to give variety of cadence to the series of sentences making 
up the paragraph. 

36 



9. In brief it seems to me that the present state of physical 
and physiological knowledge warrants the assumption the work- 
ing hypothesis that life is a form of energy different from those 
considered in the domain of physics and chemistry. 

10. These were manufactured for military purposes and judg- 
ing from the way they were packed came from the Servian 
arsenal at Kragujewac. 

11. Good style is hot a necessary result of grammatical 
correctness but without such correctness it is of course 
impossible. 

12. On the other hand when every possible means is taken to 
prevent cheating and when it is punished by expulsion there is 
usually an undergraduate sentiment which puts the cribber in 
his proper place. 

13. The Austro-Hungarian government after evading every 
conciliatory intervention of the Powers in its conflict with Servia 
proceeded to mobilize officially declared war on Servia and the 
following day bombarded Servia. 

14. Seated on her accustomed chair with her usual air of 
apathy and want of interest in what surrounded her she seemed 
now and then mechanically to resume the motion of twirling her 
spindle. 

15. That the child should resemble both father and mother is 
thus made intelligible for it is a part of both. 

16. The official documents dealing with the causes of the 
European war are as follows the British White Papers containing 
160 documents the German White Paper containing about 28 
parts the Russian Orange Paper containing 79 documents the 
Belgian Gray Paper containing 79 documents. 

17. The English as spoken by the common people of Ireland 
has a multitude of peculiarities both of sound and of idiom many 
of them borrowed from the Gaelic which was once the language 
of the whole island. 

18. There are eight parts of speech nouns pronouns adjectives 
verbs adverbs prepositions conjunctions and interjections. 

19. The Government awaited not only the terms of the 
ultimatum but the violation of her territory by German troops 
before appealing to France and to England guarantors of her 
neutrality by the same title as Germany and Austria-Hungary 
to co-operate in the name and by virtue of the treaties in the 
defense of Belgian territory. 

37 



20. If the working hypothesis fails in any essential particular 
he is ready to modify or discard it. 

21. To express our thoughts fully freely and accurately we 
must use words that is signs made with the voice. 

22. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them 
by custom or tradition so that their sense is at once understood 
by all. Their advantage is twofold they are far more numerous 
and varied than other signs and the meanings attached to them 
are much more definite than those of nods and gestures. 

23. Belgium has fulfilled all her international obligations she 
has accomplished her duties in a spirit of loyal impartiality she 
has neglected no effort in order to maintain and to make 
respected her neutrality. 

24. It like the other forms of energy requires a material 
vehicle through which to act but the results produced by it are 
vastly more complex. 

25. The poorest school has given the pupils some insight 
into methods of reenforcing a very slender outfit of knowledge 
by the use of textbooks the good school has taught the dictionary 
habit and the dictionary is the key to daily self-instruction by 
the newspaper and cheap book. 

26. The battle sir is not to the strong alone it is to the 
vigilant the active the brave. 

27. But now by the improvements in machinery the Atlantic 
has shrunk to a lake and before long will shrink to a river. 

28. Surface waters include those of swamps brooks rivers and 
lakes all of which differ greatly in regard to their characteristics. 
Swamp water is liable to be heavily charged with vegetable 
matter but the flow in brooks and rivers causes a continuous 
improvement in quality and when a lake is reached the purest 
surface water is found. This improvement in quality is effected 
in two ways first by settling or sedimentation which removes 
the suspended matter and second by aeration or contact with 
the air by which oxygen is supplied to decompose and destroy 
both the suspended and the dissoluble organic matter. 

29. The States previous to the adoption of the Constitution 
were as separate and distinct political bodies as the governments 
which represent them. 

30. The right to vote implies the duty to vote right the right 
to legislate the duty to legislate justly the right to judge about 

38 



foreign policy the duty to fight if necessary the right to come to 
college the duty to carry oneself handsomely at college. 

31. Men do not lose their self-respect they win it they do not 
drop out they work in. 

32. The water of a lake may be polluted however by the 
refuse of towns or by the discharge of sewers into it so that the 
contamination may extend to a considerable distance from the 
shores. 

33. In small lakes and ponds the liability to pollution is 
greater still hence filter galleries are frequently used to secure 
purification. 

34. Since language is the expression of thought the rules of 
grammar agree in the main with the laws of thought. Ln other 
words grammar is usually logical that is its rules accord in 
general with the principles of logic which is the science of 
exact reasoning. 

35. The State of Maryland which has been founded by men 
of rank was the first to proclaim universal suffrage and to 
introduce the most democratic forms into the conduct of its 
government. 

36. The spirit of 1776 as it speaks to us from the Declaration 
of Independence and the glowing periods of Patrick Henry was 
largely a revolutionary spirit revolutionary in its faith in abstract 
principles revolutionary also in its determination to carry 
through a tremendous political change. 

37. Prose on the other hand is unmetrical its rhythm is not 
fixed. 

38. Thus debate has a constant twofold value it informs the 
audience in the liveliest possible way on matters in which they 
are concerned and it develops in speakers a habit of clear 
and thorough thinking careful investigation and forcible 
presentation. 

39. The man who acted as guide pointed out the Capitol which 
stands at the head of the avenue. 

40. The Nevada Fall is in every respect one of the grandest 
waterfalls in the world whether we consider its vertical height 
the purity and volume of the water which forms it or the 
stupendous scenery by which it is environed. 

41. In the Governments opinion as expressed in its bill of 
complaint against the Steel Corporation ore holdings and freight 



rates do not constitute all of the Corporations offense in restraint 
of trade. 

42. In compiling this material the author had occasion to use 
the following sources The Outlook February 21 1909 The Review 
of Reviews April 1910 Colliers Weekly June 7 1910 Everybodys 
Magazine October 1911. 

43. Judged thus these papers are distinctive for at least two 
qualities first vast enterprise in the collection and display of 
all news important and unimportant and second regard for the 
tastes and the standards moral and intellectual of those in the 
community whose tastes are least exacting and whose standards 
are least developed. 

44. They regard that influence as distinctly calamitous in the 
life of the Church and with the highest regard for the peasant- 
Pope who is devoutly religious ardently concerned for the 
purity of the Church and a saint in his life they recall with 
regret the large-minded statesmanship off Leo XIII. 

45. In American football a development of the Rugby game 
one side is allowed undisputed possession of the ball at the 
moment when it is put into play. 

46. All this is certain because rocks of crustaceous or still 
later date have shared in the elevatory movements which gave 
rise to these mountain chains and may be found perched up in 
some cases many thousand feet high upon their flanks. 

47. The reviser in making his selection is guided broadly 
speaking by utility that is he aims to include the terms most 
likely to be looked for by the consulter of the dictionary. 

48. Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress desolation and 
ruin are the consequences of civil war. 

49. Now the use of culture is that it helps us by means of its 
spiritual standard of perfection to regard wealth as but 
machinery and not only to say as a matter of words that we 
regard wealth as but machinery but really to perceive and feel 
that it is so. If it were not for this purging effect wrought upon 
our minds by culture the whole world the future as well as the 
present would inevitably belong to the Philistines. The people 
who believe most that our greatness and welfare are proved by 
our being very rich and who most give their lives and thoughts 
to becoming rich are just the very people whom we call 
Philistines. Culture says "Consider these people then their way 

40 



of life their habits their manners the very tones of their voices 
look at them attentively observe the literature they read the 
things 'which give them pleasure the words which come forth 
out of their mouths the thoughts which make the furniture of 
their minds would any amount of wealth be worth having with 
the condition that one was to become just like these people by 
having it?" And thus culture begets a dissatisfaction which is 
of the highest possible value in stemming, the common tide ot 
mens thoughts in a wealthy and industrial community and 
which saves the future as one may hope from being vulgarized 
even if it cannot save the present. 

— Arnold, Sweetness and Light. 



41 



IV 
ACCURACY 

ACCURACY is one of the cardinal principles of scientific 
work. In mathematics, in physics, in chemistry — in all 
the sciences, each formula must be memorized to the letter 
and each theory applied with absolute precision. The engineer 
is either right or wrong — there is no middle ground, — and if 
wrong, he is brought to strict account. For when a decimal 
point has been misplaced and a great bridge falls, it is not the 
engineer alone who pays, but the whole community. Indeed, in 
the complex life of modern society, scientific accuracy is the 
one great guarantee of reasonable human safety. 

But the engineer's accuracy does not end with the estimating 
of stresses and the testing of materials; it applies with equal 
insistence to his specifications, his orders, and his reports. His 
language, too, must be accurate. Technical writing must be 
every time a faithful record of things as they are or are to be. 
It must be indisputably clear — there must be an unquestionable 
singleness of meaning and a convincing directness and force. 
In other words, the English of technical transactions, if legal 
complications or disaster is not to accompany their execution, 
must be absolutely foolproof. 

If the logically conceived, accurately expressed sentence 
insures immediate understanding, prompt action, economy of 
material resources and human effort, it has an undeniable claim 
upon our attention. We cannot be content to "somehow muddle 
through." We must set ourselves to revising. Greater men than 
we have not scorned the task. "I have as much difficulty as ever 
in expressing myself clearly and concisely," says Darwin in his 
Autobiography, "and this difficulty has caused me a very great 
loss of time; but it has had the compensating advantage of 
forcing me to think long and intently about every sentence, and 
thus I have been led to see errors in reasoning and in my own 
observations or those of others." Huxley, too, had our experi- 
ence. "It constantly becomes more and more difficult," says one 
of his letters, "for me to finish things satisfactorily." "The fact 
is." he says at another time, "that I have a great love and a great 
respect for my native tongue and take great pains to use it 

42 



properly. Sometimes I write essays half a dozen times before I 
can get them into proper shape, and I believe I become more 
fastidious as I grow older." "Macaulay," says Trevelyan, his 
biographer, "never allowed a sentence to pass muster until it 
was as good as he could make it." It is this fine impatience of 
results that must redeem the technical student from his pitfalls 
of self-expression. 

All this means that if one is to write and speak effectively, he 
must in the end become his own critic. He must familiarize 
himself with all the aids to good English and apply them con- 
sistently to all his work. The best corrective to inaccuracy of 
the sentence is an examination of its common causes and a thor- 
ough drill in the method of eliminating them. Such is the 
purpose of the following cautions and exercises. 

ACCURACY CAUTIONS 

I. Do not violate the law of grammatical agreement. [Gr.J 

(1) A .verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 

(2) A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, gender 
and number. 

Examples: (1) Ungrammatical : The number of transits 
in this department are too small to meet the demand. Correct: 
The number of transits is too small .... 

(2) Ungrammatical: Every one of the books had been 
removed from their accustomed place. Correct: Every one of 
the books lor every book] had been removed from its accustomed 
place. 

II. Do not omit or obscure the antecedent of a pronoun. [Ant.] 
Examples: (1) Confusing: There is a large veranda across the 

front of the house, which is supported by four pillars. Clear: 
Across the front of the house is a large veranda, which is sup- 
ported by four pillars. 

(2) Bad: These gases attack the steel work of the shed, which 
makes frequent painting necessary. [Which has no substantive 
antecedent.] Better: These gases attack the steel work of the 
shed, necessitating frequent painting. Or: As these gases attack 
the steel work . . . , frequent painting is necessary. 

(3) Confusing : After my aunt had spoken to her, I slipped 
my hand into hers and told her how sorry I was. Clear: After 
my aunt had spoken to her, I slipped my hand into Mary's and 
told her how sorry I was. 

43 



(4) Bad: I went duck-shooting yesterday and bagged six of 
them. Correct: I went duck-shooting yesterday and bagged six 
clucks. 

III. Avoid dangling modifiers. The commonest offenders are 
(1) the dangling particple and (2) the dangling gerund (verbal 
noun). [D. M.] 

(1) Bad: Having completed the design, it has to be put on 
paper. [The agent is not expressed.] Correct: Having com- 
pleted the design, we must next put it on paper. Or: After the 
design has been completed, it has to be put on paper. 

(2) Bad: By opening this valve the over-flow may be let off. 
[The agent of the gerund is not expressed.] Correct: By opening 
this valve, one may let off the over-flow. 

IV. Do not misplace modifiers. [M. M.] Keep them near the 
parts modified. 

(1) Misleading: Having no brothers or sisters, I was forced 
to play during my mother's absence in the streets. Clear: Having 
no brothers or sisters, I was forced, during my mother's absence, 
to play in the streets. 

(2) Ambiguous: As the current is turned on gradually the 
machinery begins to move. [A "squinting" construction. Which 
way does gradually really look?] Clear: As the current is grad- 
ually turned on, the machinery begins to move. Or: As the 
current is turned on, the machinery gradually begins to move. 

(3) Impossible: I visited the place where my father was born 
for the first time last year. Correct: Last year I visited for the 
first time the place where my father was born. 

(4) Ambiguous: I saw him from the window of a car this 
morning going down Salina Street. [What are the three possible 
meanings?] 

(5) Ambiguous: I only read the book. [What are the three 
possible meanings?] 

See also II (1). 

V. Do not omit necessary words. [O or A] 

(1) Incorrect: I have and still do write a little for the maga- 
zines. Correct: I have written and still write a little for the 
magazines. 

(2) Obscure: So-called popular magazines are read more by 
the uneducated than the literary. Clear: So-called popular 
magazine are read more by the uneducated than are the literary 
[magazines]. Or: So-called popular magazines are read more 
by the uneducated than by the literary [reader]. 

44 



(3) Wrong: Every student is expected to put his theme in 
these covers. Right: Every student is expected to put his theme 
in one of these covers. 

(4) Misleading : While returning from his work through the 
forest a large black bear crossed his path. [Elliptical clause. 
Cf. III.] Clear: While he was returning from his work through 
the forest, a large black bear crossed his path. 

(5) Impossible: When six years old [or at the age of six] my 
father took me to visit my grandparents. [Elliptical clause.] 
Correct: When I was six years old, my father took me to visit 
my grandparents. Or: At the age of six, I was taken by my 
father to visit my grandparents. 

VI. Avoid false and incomplete comparisons. [P. C] 

(1) False: In those days the value of the classics was con- 
sidered to be far greater than sciences. Correct: In those 
days the value of the classics was considered to be far greater 
than that of the sciences. 

(2) Incorrect: I like this most of any of my subjects. [Cf. 
VIII.] Correct: Of all my subjects, I like this best. Or: I like 
this better than any of my other subjects. [Cf. V.] 

(3) Incomplete: Although I had considered several courses, I 
finally selected chemical engineering as offering better opportu- 
nities. Complete: Although I had considered several courses, I 
finally selected chemical engineering as offering better opportu- 
nities than any other course. [Cf. V.] 

VII. Do not fail to put parallel ideas into parallel construc- 
tion. [||Cst.] Avoid false co-ordination and violent change of 
construction generally. 

(1) Wrong: You have to use the words which best express 
the thought and the clearest to the reader. [False co-ordination.] 
Correct: You have to use the words which best express your 
thought and which are clearest to the reader. 

(2) Wrong: It was a particularly trying experience, and which 
cost me much peace of mind afterward. Correct: It was a par- 
ticularly trying experience, one which cost me much peace of 
mind afterward. 

(3) Wrong: You may either write a long theme on your work 
during last summer or that of the first term in college. Correct: 
You may write a long theme on either your work during last 
summer or that during the first term in college. 

(4) Wrong: I have not only failed in mathematics but in 

45 



English also. Correct: I have failed not only in mathematics but 
also in English. 

VIII. Do not use the wrong word. [W. Y\\] Consult the 
dictionary. 

(1) Incorrect: The waiting-room, which lays along the front 
of the depot, was filled with people. Correct: The waiting-room, 
which lies along the front of the station, was filled with people. 

(2) Incorrect: By careful Observance in the classroom, 
prospective teachers may gather much valuable information. 
Correct: By careful observation in the classroom, prospective 
teachers may gather much valuable information. 

(3) Incorrect: A table stands before both windows. Correct: 
A table stands before each window. [There are two tables.] 

IX. Do not neglect the comma. [P.] Punctuation marks, in 
themselves, have no thought value, but they are often essential 
to the correct interpretation of the thought. Especially is the 
comma necessary to distinguish the non-restrictive from the 
restrictive modifier. [See the rules on PrxcrrATiox.] 

Contrast: CI) The bridge which collapsed was of the cantilever 
type. (2) The bridge, which collapsed, was of the cantilever 
type. 

NOTE: — Never attempt to correct an organically bad sentence 
by merely inserting puncutaiton marks. Recast the sentence. 

EXERCISES IX ACCURACY OF THE SEXTEXCE 
Read the sentence through carefully to ascertain the author's 
intended meaning and emphasis, state specifically the nature of 
the inaccuracy, and write the correct form of the sentence. 

1. A month ago I wrote you for information on the advice of a 
friend regarding the manufacture of a patented device. 

2. The enclosed catalog contains all our screens of stock sizes. 

3. We can let you have these goods for S102.75 delivered to 
you at your nearest shipping station. 

4. A tracer has been sent out whom we hope will locate the 
goods lost within a few days. 

5. I should like very much if you would send an estimate of 
the cost. 

6. Oxford University was thus founded by the English students 
at Paris. 

7. In the west wall are two windows about equally spaced. 

8. Entering the bedrcom through the door at the right, a large 
window appears immediately in front. 

46 



9. On the opposite wall are two windows in the middle of which 
is a door. 

10 Are the doors to be of pine or oak, and do you wish all the 
doors and windows the same? 

11. We are glad to send you a catalog showing our products 
which you will find enclosed. 

12. My stay of six years with this company and foreman of it 
for three years argues that I have given satisfaction. 

13. For the past four years I have been connected with a large 
manufacturing plant in the capacity of testing and cost distribu- 
iton work. 

14. A chandelier hangs from the ceiling in the center, to which 
is connected by means of a wire an electric study lamp on the 
table. 

15. The bookcase is set up against the wall between the two 
windows, being the lightest spot in the room which is best 
adapted for study. 

16. Directly upon entering the room, a large table attracts the 
attention near the center. 

17. The crucible or hearth is the bottom section [of the blast 
furnace], and from this is drawn the molten iron and waste 
materials. 

18. The large railroad and lumber companies employ at least 
one forester to look after their wooded tracts. 

19- His working while at college not only makes possible his 
education, but he grows in independence by being thrust upon 
his own responsibility. 

20. Again and again in his travels he found himself contrasting 
the social and political ideals of the different countries to the 
United States. 

21. The man or woman who gives patient attention to the 
details of their work, whatever it be, is bound to meet with some 
degree of success. 

22. Some desert plants contain enough water to supply men 
and animals with drink when they are cut open. 

23. His success not only consisted in his attaining the highest 
office in the land, but he was also loved as a fearless champion 
of the rights of the laboring classes. 

24. Like his superintendent, his salary was considerably 
increased with the expansion of the business. 

47 



25. Athletics naturally tend to develop a man's body physically, 
which carries along with it mental development. 

26. The word university not only included the students and the 
professors, but every employee regardless of the capacity in 
which they served. 

27. Handsome seawalls, promenades, bathing beaches, and 
many other recreations go to make those parks famous through- 
out the country. 

28. From there I went with the B Metal Working Company 

where I received a larger salary and it also brought me nearer 
home. 

29. St. Mark's was also described externally and internally, 
illustrating the methods of selecting different points of view to 
describe different objects in relation to each other. 

30. An indoor track team consists of any number of men from 
two to twenty. It consists of pole vaulting, running, high jump- 
ing, putting the shot, etc. 

31. The essence of each article is somewhat similar to the 
others. 

32. All these facts duly emphasize the importance of the situa- 
tion of the tree upon its grtfwth. 

33. Forced to rely upon himself financially, he becomes inde- 
pendent in other ways, for instance, independence in thought, 
which enables him to make quick and unprejudiced decisions. 

34. Wie would suggest further that you advise us the exact 
dimensions of the window and door openings together with a 
plan-sketch of their location. 

35. The doors needed for the house are: first, one for the front 
entrance. This door I would have finished in oak ..... 

36. From the three windows comes the only source of light. 

37. Rowing tends to regulate the weight of the rower as well 
as making his muscles hard and strong. 

38. The college daily published a statement of the weights of 
the 'varsity men as freshmen and before the race last June. 

39 Mayor S spoke of Mr. A not only as a material 

asset to the University but to the city itself as well. 

40. Unless you steer carefully, the boat may crash into the 
wharf which may result in serious damage to it. 

41. I inherited extravagance and freedom with money from my 
father, and an aversion to taking advice from my mother. 

42. During my early years, I attended the school in our town, 

48 



entering the primary class and, as I grew older, advanced to 
higher grades, receiving my diploma in 1909. 

43. During my high school curriculum, one event occurred 
which did more to influence my choice of college than any other 
of my experiences. 

44. After getting well started in this school at the age of ten 

years, my parents were forced to move to W by my father's 

ill health, so my school work was again interrupted. 

45. The room was lighted by an east and south window. In 
front of both windows stood a study table. 

46. I attended this school for four years, which enabled me 
to enter the University. 

47. One who studies nature closely and sympathetically will 
see more than the ordinary man. 

48. The main use of the birch is of course the birch-bark canoe. 

49. By studying these characters in fiction, our knowledge of 
human nature is broadened. 

50. The author shows how the hero was saved from becoming 
a victim through his high ideal. 

51. Shakespeare shows us not only that human nature is the 
same throughout his own land but also in different and far distant 
lands. 

52. This canal is quite a piece of engineering, traveling through 
large cities and forests and even over rivers and valleys on 
acqueducts. 

53. While on board this ship, the bombardment of Fort 
McHenry began and Key received his inspiration for our national 
anthem. 

54. Another theory of the origin of language is that regarding 
words taken from animals such as puss. 

55. Being only fifteen years of age and learning rapidly, the 
change of schools gave me no particular trouble. 

56. As I had always been much interested in electricity, it was 
my sole desire to work at this industry. 

57. Let us, for instance, contrast the benefits of the ideal news- 
paper with the real newspaper 

58. Besides my studies, I found time to make the football team, 
enter a debate, attend numerous social affairs, and some odd 
jobs about iiome. 

59. My room-mate was an excellent scholar, which was bene- 
ficial to him in all his work. 

49 



60. Unlike the large cities of central Pennsylvania, there are 
no great mineral deposits, nor are there great facilities for lumber 
manufacture like the cities of Michigan. 

61. In tracing a drawing the cloth is first tacked over the 
drawing, making certain that the cloth is taut. 

62. He chooses a very simple example in his scientific reason- 
ing that can be grasped by most any one. 

63. Thus having these theories before them, the apparatus was 
fitted out to prove them so that they might become facts. 

64. It was in June that our little party .left Buffalo on an 
immense freighter, and started up Lake Erie, loaded with coal. 

65. For example, how many students have tried to memorize a 
difficult lesson sitting up late at night, but finally, closing their 
book, retire, feeling discouraged because they were unable to 
master their lesson. 

66. If this exercise is taken properly, i. e., moderately and 
warmly clad, it is not dangerous. 

67. The ranger is to be compared with the cowboy who guards 
the cattle or to the railroad telegrapher who holds the railroads 
in his hands, while the ranger safeguards the forests. 

68. In this theme I propose to discuss the . relation of the 
forests to the water supply, which is, in my opinion, a matter of 
great importance. 

69. Many victims of the drug habit, says Miinsterberg, have 
been gradually led out of their harmful ways through the semi- 
hypnotic influence of others, and a cure subsequently effected. 

70. A corked bottle filled with air and heated shows that air 
when heated expands by the cork popping out. 

75. In order that the seeds will stay in position and also to 
provide them with moisture, we will pack them firmly with peat 
moss. 

76. The ballast [of a subway] collects all sorts of impurities 
and being easily cast into the air as dust, is a constant menace 
to the health of the passengers. 

77. The reason that the purchaser is limited in his choice is 
because the merchants do not carry a large stock of goods on 
account of the deficient railroad system; also this class of 
people do not expect a very large assortment of goods ordinarily, 
having no such needs as in the city. 

78. If subscribers to the Daily Orange have any trouble in 
receiving their papers regularly, either by mail or carrier, they 

50 






will confer a favor by promptly notifying the circulation man- 
ager, either 'by telephone or postal, giving name and address, and 
immediate attention will be given the matter. 

79. Binghamton is nearer Syracuse than Rochester. 

80. As he worked four hours every night, it was not surprising 
that he received a lower grade than any man in his class. 

81. He substituted this assignment by an advance exercise 
contrary to the course rules. 

82. I can see the stacks of the steamers as they go up and 
down the river from my window. 

83. Human beings have and do inhabit this dreary country- 

84. While talking to my companion, the animal snapped the 
cord and escaped. 

85. Of course the Empire State only stops at Utica and Albany, 
but near Yonkers it stops to change the steam engine for an 
electric engine. This eliminates the smoke in the city. 

86. The architect has provided for separate lunch-rooms for 
men and women as well as rest rooms for the station. 

87. It is usually difficult enough for people to meet and pass 
in the aisle of a car, but this passage is narrower still. 

88. As far as making a success in any professional line, it 
matters little whether these men have any cultural education or 
not, but as a citizen, husband, and father, a combination of the 
two kinds of education is necessary. 

89. Such a breaking up of long sentences leads to abruptness, 
and not enough variety is shown which the writer should care- 
fully guard against. 

90 It is their plans that construct fire lines, telephone lines. 
and observatories for the rangers and so guarding the forests 
against terrible fires. 

91. He was injured toward the close of the game and replaced 
by Kauffman. 

92. At this period of my life I became much interested in 
electricity and it ,was my sole desire to work at this industry. 

93. They rise to many positions of trust, such as directors of 
large corporations, managers of factories and bank clerks. 

94. Sentences are at first jotted down, paying attention to the 
order of the sentences but not to their form. 

95. The English use the word in a different sense than the 
Americans do. 

51 



96. Travel is considered healthy where a person is afflicted 
with a disease which requires different atmosphere. 

97. The crusher is easily repaired when broken at a small 
expense and in a short time. 

98. Chemical engineering is a combination of a chemist with 
an industrial and mechanical engineer's knowledge thrown in. 

99. Streets and good roads are built under his supervision and 
rivers are dredged through his department. 

100. In New York State state conservation of forests is devel- 
oped to the highest degree of any of the states. 

101. The hot water heating plants consist of a furnace and a 
system of pipes leading from a coil of pipe within the furnace 
over the fire-pot to all the rooms to be heated. 

COORDINATION AXD SUBORDINATION 

Besides inaccuracy and wordiness, another common cause of 
ineffectiveness in the sentence is loose or illogical coordination. 
Where a formal, dignified, forceful style is required, the excessive 
use of and is fatal. It is a childish practice which we must 
put away when we address ourselves to science. To the 
two-year-old, things happen with no other relation than sequence; 
but to the scientist, every object and every event is the cause or 
consequence of another. This constant interplay of cause and 
effect must everywhere be reckoned with in science; it must even 
be written into the scientists style. But the conjunction and 
will not do it. 

This abuse of a perfectly reputable word is as inexcusable as 
it is fatal. It is usually the result of carelessness. "Statements 
are strung together with and's. on the same principle as that by 
which a railroad crew make up a train. The cars are loaded 
with different cargoes; some bear grain, some coal, some furni- 
ture some live stock. Some of the loads are worth a few 
hundred dollars, others are worth several thousands. The mate- 
rial or the value has nothing to do with their connection; they 
are coupled together solely because they are all going in the 
same direction." It is to couple that we use and in English, but 
the things coupled must all be of equal rank and value. 

Besides being a fruitful source of incoherence, the overworked 
and leads also to the violation of sentence unity. It not only 
tempts us to crowd too much into a sentence, but it also often 
deceives our readers into believing that our anrj-connected clauses 



are logically unrelated when in truth they have a very real 
relationship which needs but to be expressed. For example, the 
following sentence is confusing: William the Conqueror invaded 
England in 1066 and we see a profound and permanent change 
in the language. One who is unacquainted with the historical 
facts can see little connection between these two clauses as they 
stand, although the writer conceived them simultaneously and 
related them definitely in his mind. The reader demands some- 
thing like this: . When William the Conqueror invaded England 
in 1066, there began a profound and permanent change in the 
language. [Emphasis on time.] Or: The invasion of England 
by William the Conqueror in 1066 wrought a profound and perma- 
nent change in the language. [Emphasis on cause.] Observe 
that the correction is effected, not by the mere substitution of 
another connective (though this is sometimes sufficient), but by 
a radical shift in organic structure. 

Reorganization, then, is commonly the best remedy for loose 
coordination. As a rule, the weak compound must be converted 
into either a simple or a complex sentence. Whether simple or 
complex, the periodic construction (if not over-used), in which 
the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence, is the 
most emphatic. The following list of possibilities will prove the 
flexibility of the English sentence. 

To Remedy Loose Coordination 

I. Compound to simple — Convert the independent clause con- 
taining the subordinate thought into a phrase: 

(1) Participial — nominative absolute, adjective. 

(2) Infinitive — of purpose, complementary. 

(3) Prepositional — adverbial, adjective. 

(4) Appositive — generally in agreement with the subject, 

predicate, or object. 

II. Compound to complex — Convert the independent clause con- 
taining the subordinate thought into a dependent clause: 

(1) Causal — because, since, for, as. etc.; avoid the loose so 

construction. 

(2) Concessive — though, although, even if. 

(3) Conditional — if. ivhether, unless. 

(4) Contrasting — whereas. 

(5) Locative — where, tohence. etc. 

(6) Noun — that, the fact that, etc. 

53 



(7) Purpose — that, so that, in order that, lest. 

(8) Relative — who, which, that. 

(9) Result — so that, such that; avoid the loose so construction. 

(10) Temporal — when, while as. after, before, since. 

NOTE: If contrast is to be expressed, the compound form of 
the sentence may be retained with the substitution of but for and. 
For especial emphasis, the correlatives not only — but also may 
be used. 

"The use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases 
enormously the richness and power of language." 

EXERCISES 

Apply the suggestions above to the following sentences with a 
view to eliminating the troublesome and and so. [See Conden- 
sation.] 

1. The German people would not listen to him and he at last 
decided to abdicate. 

2. Someone suggested Bismarck to him and so he summoned 
Bismarck to his aid and as a result the king's plans were 
executed and Germany became one of the greatest nations of 
Europe. 

3. They were the king's "royal officials" who governed for him 
and they finally gained everything until the king was powerless. 

4. To Otto the country which is now Italy appeared the easiest 
to subdue and this is what he set out at once to conquer. 

5. There were also many minor officials in the service of the 
government and many noblemen' and knights began to gather 
troops together to war among themselves. 

6. France was in danger of losing her prestige because of her 
repeated failures and she wanted to wage war with some foreign 
power to regain the confidence of the world. 

7. He was told that he had to hurry and much to our surprise 
he finished the work on time. 

8. The contacts are made of platinum and the electric current 
will not fuse or melt them. 

9. The subordinate clause precedes the main clause and it is 
therefore advisable to begin the main clause with the subject. 

10. Repetition sometimes gives just the emphasis desired and 
this is called "judicious" repetition. 

11. Sometimes of course the emphasis is very pronounced and 
then the exclamation point may very properly be used. 

54 



12. He just jotted down his ideas as they came, with no 
attempt at organization, and so the result was extremely inco- 
herent and he failed. 

13. After having been in high school a year I grew to dislike 
my mathematics and this was the reason I failed. 

14. The letter must command respect, so it must be clear and 
forceful. 

15. I found I was not very good in any of the sports, so I kept 
out. 

16. Like mathematics, English is difficult for me and so I get 
discouraged sometimes and cannot do my best. 

17. But an uncle of mine persuaded me to get an education, so 
that is why I am now. in Syracuse University. 

18. But at this time my mother was taken sick and we lived 
for two years in the country and I attended a country school. 

19. My name was pretty well down in the list of the eligible 
men, so I had ample time to make my preparation. 

20. I was eighteen years of age at the time of my entrance 
and so I entered the S. A. T. C. 

21. I had intended to study law, but engineering seemed to 
offer a broader field, so I finally decided to enter Smith College. 

22. I was never very fond of agriculture and I decided very 
early that I would find some other occupation. 

23. My father was a member of the city fire department and 1 
was always greatly interested in the various kinds of apparatus, 
so later when it came to choosing: my course of study, engineer- 
ing seemed to make the strongest appeal. 



55 



V 
CONDENSATION 

"Brevity is the soul of icit." — Shakespeare. 
^^"-^OOD ENGLISH," says Professor Palmer, "is exact Eng- 

It lish. Our words should fit our thought like a glove, 

and be neither too wide nor too tight. If too wide, 

they will include much vacuity beside the intended matter. If 

too tight, they will check the strong grasp. Of the two dangers, 

looseness is by far the greater. "i 

By '"exact English" Professor Palmer obviously means not 
only accurate English but concise English — English divested of 
all that may encumber and enfeeble the thought. It is true that 
a certain kind of repetition was a literary habit in the ninth 
century, when synonymous words were frequently coupled to 
express a single idea — a habit which has survived to this day 
in such hackneyed expressions as 'lord and master,' 'without let 
or hindrance,' 'really and truly,' etc. But even here Professors 
Greenough and Kittredge feel impelled to suggest that the repeti- 
tion "may be due to some uncertainty as to the exact scope of 
the English words, then first applied to the finer shades of 
thought."^ And, frankly, is not this the secret of much of our 
verbiage — the want of the inevitable word? But with all the 
facilities for self-improvement now at our command, there can 
be no justification of such repetition to-day. Indeed, present usage 
sanctions repetition of no kind that is not consciously designed 
to enforce the thought. 

Wordiness, call it by whatever name you like— repetition, 
redundancy, prolixity, tautology, pleonasm, or verbosity — is not 
a marketable product. To be sure, men have been known to be 
deliberately wordy, and with profit. Oliver Wendell Holmes, for 
instance, one humorously wrote: "There is one delicate point 
I wish to speak of with reference to old age. I refer to the 
use of dioptric media which correct the diminishing refracting 
powers of the humors of the eye, — in other words, spectacles. "3 
And we laugh with the Autocrat. Again, filibustering senators 
have "circumlocuted" from eleven to eighteen hours in order to 
block legislation; but circumlocution was their ammunition. The 

1 George Herbert Palmer, Self-Gidtivatiov in English; Riverside Edu- 
cational Monographs (Houghton Mifflin Co.). 

*Word8 and Their Ways in English Speech (Macmillian Co.. 1901). pp. 
113-114. 

3 Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, p. 173. 

56 



technical man can find no such warrant for diffuseness? In fact, 
modern business will not tolerate it; you pat the case straight 
from the shoulder, or you quit. 

Now, there are several well founded reasons for this persistent 
demand for compact expression. In the first place, business and 
professional men are busy men; they have no time to puzzle over 
diffuse reports and letters — the engineer must do his own blue- 
penciling. Secondly, the wordier our sentence, the obscurer the 
thought, and obscurity is akin to inaccuracy. Thirdly, in science, 
a thing, has but one name; no number of remote synonyms will 
answer; you must find the specific term. And fourthly, the 
straighter the course and the shorter the distance, the greater 
the striking force — directness is power. 

To this end, then, we condense. How? 

The first aid to concise English is a wide range of words. It 
is usually the illiterate man, the man of scant vocabulary, who 
must use his hands and countless syllables merely to suggest a 
simple thought. On the other hand, there is no better evidence 
of a keen intellect than a terse and vigorous style. But to attain 
this style, one must learn the intrinsic values of words, he must 
be able to find the one word of all words that will convey an 
idea without the aid of a host of modifiers. Again, books — 
especially the dictionaries — stand ready to help. 

Beyond this, the observance of a few special cautions will 
enable us effectively to prune our style — "to lop off those use- 
less excrescences. . . commonly found in a first draft." 

CAUTIONS 

I. Avoid the useless repetition of an idea. 

Poor: There should be a systematic and organized arrange- 
ment of thought. 

Better: There should be a systematic arrangement of thought. 

II. Do not use a clause when one word or a phrase will suf- 
fice. The relative pronouns, who. ivhich, and that, especially, 
are much overworked. 

1. Poor: After leaving M— , which is a great industrial 

center, we made a tour of the southern section of the state. 

Better: After leaving M , a great industrial center, we 

made a tour of the southern section of the state. (Apposition.) 

2. Acceptable: The man whom you sent me last month is 
doing excellent work. 

57 



Better: The man you sent me last month is doing excellent 
work. (Relative pronoun understood.) 

3. Poor: As I had made little progress in all this time, I 
decided to quit. 

Better: Having made little progress in all this time, I decided 
to quit. (Participial phrase instead of clause.) 

III. Do not use a phrase (adjective or adverbial) when one 
word will suffice. 

1. Poor: It is simply a small box, made of wood and covered 
with leather. 

Better: It is simply a small leather-covered wooden box. 

2. Poor: Racing before the wind in its mad course, it 
crossed the line three lengths the winner. 

Better: Racing madly before the wind, it crossed the line 
three lengths the winner. 

IV. Do not use an unnecessary adjective or adverb. The 
intensives, especially, are much abused. (Cf. Caution I.) 

1. Poor: Be assured, I very much appreciate all you have 
done. 

Better: Be assured. I appreciate all you have done. 

2. Poor: The general universality of its use makes the 
demand for this instrument highly exceptional. 

Better: The universality of its use creates an exceptional 
demand for this instrument. 

V. Avoid the use of compound conjunctions and prepositions 
if the simpler forms are as clear. For example: in order to = 
to; in back of = behind ; in such a way that = so that; provided 
that = provided ; in case that = if; the fact that = that; for 
the reason that = because : by the way o f = through or by; by 
means of = with, or through; etc. 

1. Poor: Wordiness should be avoided for the reason that 
it retards and weakens one's expression. 

Better: Wordiness should be avoided because it retards and 
weakens one's expression. 

2. Poor: By means of hard study I succeeded in passing, the 
course on the second trial. 

Better: By hard study I succeeded in passing the course. . . . 

VI. Avoid useless verbs. 

1. Poor : This valve was designed for the purpose of 
preventing the gas from escaping. 

58 



Better: The purpose of this valve is to prevent the 
escape of gas. Or: This valve prevents the escape of gas. 

2. Poor: My course happened to be so arranged as to permit 
me to work afternoons. 

Better: The arrangement of my course permitted me to work 
afternoons. Or: My course permitted afternoon work. 

VII. Do not add an unnecessary thought. Once the main 
thought has been adequately expressed, additional matter tends 
only to weaken what has gone before. 

Poor: Prom this barrel the ink flows to the point of the pen, 
where it makes a mark upon the paper which the writer has 
before him. 

Better: Prom this barrel the ink flows to the point of the 
pen. 

Note: Never sacrifice clearness, fluency, and force to brevity. 

EXERCISES IN CONDENSATION 

Condense each of the following sentences and give specific 
reasons for any changes from the original. Care should be taken 
not to alter the main thought or the emphasis, unless these are 
obviously wrong. Nor should clearness be sacrificed to 
compactness. 

1. In the event that your order is given us within ten days from 
date, it will be possible for us to deliver the machine by May 10. 

2. If upon receipt of this letter the order has not been shipped, 
will you kindly give it your immediate attention and see that it 
is forwarded at once. 

3. I will be glad to furnish you with any further information 
you may desire to know. 

4. Your letter of May 12 is at hand; and in reply we wish to 
say that, as we shipped the goods on May 7, the railway company 
is the one to blame for the delay. 

5. For its growth a tree needs a good anchorage, for no tree 
can live and grow if it does not have a good, solid foundation. 

6. He convinced me conclusively that a tunnel was the only 
feasible way of overcoming the obstacle. 

7. In measuring the windows you can have a carpenter do it or 
you can have one of our agents do it. 

8. We have made inquiries about screens for the new hotel 
which we are building and we think that you have the kind of 
screen which we wish to purchase. 

59 



9. I am building a home at present here in Brookville, and it is 
my desire to equip the house with first-class screens. 

10. Your letter of March 26, stating the time at which the 
screens would be delivered, promised me a delivery before this 
date. 

11. I believe that I have the necessary qualifications of educa- 
tion and experience required for the position you advertise. 

12. Copper oxide is a substance which is made up of copper 
and oxygen. 

13. Just before the board comes out of the machine it passes 
under a brush that is turning around very fast, which cleans off 
all the dust. 

14. Gravity is the attraction which the earth has to draw all 
bodies toward itself. It is the force which tends to dra'w all 
things toward the center of the earth. 

15. Gravity depends upon the mass or density of the body in 
the first place; while, secondly, it depends upon the location of 
the body relative to the earth's surface. 

16. The outlook for the future is not very bright because of 
the fact that the game birds are being killed off. 

17. I hope that this information will be sufficient so that you 
can send an immediate quotation of the cost. 

18. In cases where power can be generated close to where it is 
to be used, it is cheaper to use water power than steam. 

19. The language is very clear and readily understood, hence 
the reason why it is so popular among the young folks. 

20. The moral is not tacked on as an after-thought but pervades 
throughout the whole story. 

21. Every day when we pick up a ne'wspaper we can find an 
account of some murder having taken place, and nearly every day 
we may read the vivid account of a trial for some murder. 

22. In this state there is much talk of a law being put into 
force to the effect that all men between the ages of eighteen and 
sixty who are not engaged in some regular employment must 
register and when examined, if found physically fit, be drafted 
to do some kind of useful work. 

23. The manufacture of sulphuric acid is usually based on the 
fact that the oxidation of sulphuric dioxide in the presence of 
water forms the acid. 

24. It is to be seen that in case of fire in that building there 
would be great danger of lives being lost, for, although the 

60 



building itself is made of brick, still the stairways and floors and 
ceilings are made of wood. 

25. A description of the machine that accomplished this 
process will probably aid the reader to have a more vivid con- 
ception of the process. 

26. The origin of "The Star-Spangled Banner" is probably of 
as great interest as that of any song which one might think of. 
It was peculiarly brouglit about through the thoughts of an 
Englishman who once wrote "To Anacreon in Heaven." The 
music of this song became the music of our national anthem 
which was written by Francis Scott Key. It was written because 
of the courageous defense of Fort McHenry at Baltimore. 

27. The occupation of these people was mostly various kinds 
of business. This was due to the fact that they had practically 
no right to do anything else. 

28. These three examples show very clearly that the invention 
of a satisfactory explosive is a very difficult matter, and one that 
requires many years of hard labor. 

29. We will first consider that method of advertising which is 
known as pictorial advertising. 

30. The smoke problem is one which has been much before 
the people of this world and which has created a great deal of 
comment ever since the beginning of the Christian era. Fire has 
been used for heating purposes ever since man made his appear- 
ance on the globe. 

31. There is one matter that has given the public much 
thought, and that is that the posting of bills along our principal 
ways of travel does not add to the beauty of the landscape, but 
has the directly opposite effect. 

32. Before 1855 he had written thirty papers along technical 
lines. 

33. There should be a systematic and organized arrangement 
of material and an orderly presentation of thoughts, each part 
related to the other. 

34. There are many students who are unable to participate in 
these contests because it is too great a tax upon their strength. 

35. In most colleges the players of football eat at a table 
called the training table, which is under the direction of a 
person who is supposed to know the kind of food that should be 
eaten by men that play the game. 

61 



36. The meaning of the word culture is. that it stands for a 
knowledge of learning and of the will of God. 

37. In time all the corporations and railroads that own land 
will see the value of forestry and will carry out extensive forestry 
on all their idle land and will require the services of a large 
number of foresters to carry out their work. 

38. Many large lumber companies are beginning to employ 
trained foresters to harvest their lumber, because the forester 
is trained to make definite plans as to the best way to lumber a 
tract of timber with least expense and yet get the largest 
returns. 

39. It is through these channels that the food and water 
together pass in going to the other parts of the tree. 

40. Many of the noted botanists and scientists of the country 
have studied and experimented in order to bring about a cure that 
will rid the country of this great pest. 

41. Chemical engineering requires a combinaton of a knowledge 
of chemistry with that of industrial and mechanical engineering 
thrown in. 

43. It sometimes happens that even the most careful plans 
prove themselves to be ill adapted to the situation as it actually 
presents itself. 

44. Chauncey Olcott presented at the Empire Theatre last 
night his new play entitled "The Isle o' Dreams" and received a 
hearty welcome at the hands of a large and discriminating 

audience His attractive individuality, pleasing and 

magnetic presence and the beauty of his singing voice are 
attributes which combine to make him a player whose popularity 
is unexcelled. 

45. We will begin with magnetism, although we could begin 
anywhere, for the truth is, as we shall find out, that electricity 
and magnetism work in a circle. 

46. Those who were afflicted with some disease or with blind- 
ness and those who were crippled sought the shrines in order to 
be cured of their physical defects. 

47. The post office was also connected with the country store 
and therefore this came to be a place where all the wisest men 
of the town collected to discuss the great political questions 
which were so important then. 

48 We should like to help you to solve your heating problem 
in the most satisfactory manner, and shall not only be glad to 

62 



supply you with any of our printed matter in which you may be 
interested, but will also take pleasure in answering any special 
questions you may care to ask regarding IDEAL Boilers and 
AMERICAN Radiators. 

49. Inasmuch as the site for the Syracuse post office has been 
acquired, that is considered a strong argument for an appropria- 
tion for the building. 

50. His great love of truth, his ability to inspire confidence 
through his true-heartedness and his knowledge of the common 
people made him a lecturer in such a degree that he was able 
to obtain the approval of the common people. 

51. There are many who will condemn your ruling as one that 
is influenced by fear of certain powerful interests. 

52. Through the carbureter the correct mixture of gas and air 
is made so that it will be the proper explosive mixture. 

53. If the traffic is composed of both automobiles and horse- 
drawn vehicles, the horse-drawn vehicles perform the operation 
that it was intended they should, but the swiftly moving auto- 
mobile ruins the work because the rubber tires present a rather 
large surface to the roads, and since they are revolving swiftly, 
they leave a vacuum into which the air rushes, drawing with it 
all the loose particles and pieces of the surface of the road. 
Then the wind catches these particles and blows them where 
they are not needed. 

54. We are to consider the benefits of a college education to 
the man who enters the S. A. T. C, the benefits of travel in the 
army for the man later, the benefits of life in the army upon 
the health of the man, and the moral effect of the benefits of 
being a soldier. 

55. Several other college dailies from these institutions which 
are frequent opponents of the Orange teams in their various 
athletic battles of the year are kept on file in the Daily Orange 
office and hence will not be included among those to be sent to 
the reading room of the library. 

56. Certainly there is much possible good which could result 
from such an organization. 

57. If every game is attended with this interest aroused, there 
is no doubt that a greater interest in women's athletics will come 
about. 

58. But today, in order to build a road so that it satisfies the 
public which should be satisfied because they are paying for it, 

63 



it takes an engineer to lay out this road, make a map of it, and 
then draw up the specifications of how it should be built. When 
the contract for the road to be built is let, again the engineer 
is called upon to see that it is built properly. 

59. These ditches are so arranged as to be allowed to overflow 
evenly and to give the soil the necessary amount of water. 

60. A good test of unity in the paragraph is for one to analyze 
each of his sentences to make sure that it bears a close relation- 
ship to the topic sentence. 

61. If the trunk is allowed to decay or is injured in any other 
way. the tree is unable to do its work properly, its health is 
affected, as well as its appearance, and it is of little value. 

62. The stage is also provided with two clips of tough steel 
fastened in such a manner that they will hold the slide from 
slipping out of position. 

63. The stand consists of the entire microscope without the 
ocular parts. The part resting on the table is usually of cast 
iron and horseshoe in shape. This is known as the base. 

64. Besides a growth in the development along mechanical, 
electrical, and various other branches of scientific work, there 
has come into prominence a steady growth of microscopical 
research. 

65. The motorman is able to see what is taking place be- 
hind him in the rear of the car without looking around. This 
is another advantage of this type of car. 

66. There are only two handles for operating the doors and 
they are carried on the center stanchion. 

67. The passengers may be carried for several miles before 
any unloading takes place and then they are discharged in 
small groups as on an ordinary car. 

68. At the bottom of the first two keys in the tubing [of the 
cornet] are the water-keys. These are used to remove any 
saliva that may collect there. There is a hole in the tubing, 
which is covered by a pad on one end of the key. By pressing 
the other end, the hole is opened and the saliva is allowed to 
run out. 

67. The slag is drawn off through an opening similar to this, 
situated a short distance above the tapping point. 

70. It will help us to follow the description of the stables if 
we refer back to figure II on page five. 

71. There are several types of cylinder casting used 

64 



72. This gearing consists of a steel sleeve which is journaled 
into eccentric bushes, which in turn are journaled into ' two 
bearings which are lined with white metal. 

73. For three hundred years the emperors of Germany made 
attacks against Italy but were repeatedly beaten back to their 
own borders and repulsed by the Italians. 

74. From the tenth to the twelfth centuries the Prussian 
state was very much divided up into small states. These 
smaller states all had their own separate forms of government 
and lived independently of the other states, each managing its 
own affairs as it chose. 

75. He had great desires to extend his empire, so he began 
his undertaking by starting to conquer Italy and to get control 
of the Pope and eventually to become the ruler supreme over all 
Europe. 

76. No other step tending to unite the German states was 
taken until in 1848 an effort was made to unite Germany, which 
failed. 

77. The present war. the end of which is now very near, has 
presented many interesting conditions and events and has also 
raised many difficult questions, especially about international 
law; one of these is that concerning the neutrality of Belgium 
and the violation of that neutrality by the forces of the invading 
Germans, 

78. To be loyal to a government, the people under that 
government must know the truth as it exists about that govern- 
ment and must also know the truth about the purposes and 
aims of that government, which is going to use the services of 
its people to carry out such purposes and aims. 

79. With this system it is possible to handle larger crowds 
than by the ordinary method. 

80. These crystals when they are tested are found to have 
the same properties as real diamonds. 

81. The sliding transmission consists of a number of gears 
of different sizes, arranged in such a way in connection with 
the driving shaft that they may be interchanged. 

82. There are many types of boats used for dredging oysters, 
but the predominating craft is built on the lines of a tug and 
runs by steam. 

83. In many cases, when two or more chemicals are mixed, 
their combination is accompanied by the production of heat. 

65 



This heat is known as the heat of chemical action. 

84. By means of slide-valves very much similar to those of a 
steam engine of the ordinary type, worked by the movement 
of these partitions, the gas which is to be measured passes 
alternately in and out of each space. 

85. If I had plenty of spare time with nothing else to do and 
all the means to do it properly, I think I should like to spend 
a winter in Florida, the state of oranges. 

86. I was finally compelled to abandon the study of these 
subjects on account of the fact that my father informed me that 
I should be obliged to give up my intention of going to college 
the following fall. 

87. Some of the events prior to the foundation of the present 
German Empire which have a bearing on that foundation, are 
interesting and a knowledge of them is necessary to fully 
comprehend Germany's actions in the present war. 

88. Thus, we who are to go to war are to be taught truth- 
fully the causes and aims of this war, which are taught us 
in this war aims' course. 

89. Even up to the time of the beginning of the present war 
there has been a feeling of hatred shown by the Germans 
toward the French. 

90. At this particular time the king's time was very much 
taken up with his foreign affairs and so he . accordingly 
appointed a large number of "Royal officials." 

91. By means of these secessions the king lost all his power 
and much of his means and was left destitute. 

92. The leaders at most times were intoxicated with the 
aspirations of forming a second Holy Roman Empire which 
we again see for ourselves in the present struggle which is 
taking place in Europe. 



66 



VI 
THE PARAGRAPH 

THE model paragraph is a small composition complete in 
itself. Like the long theme, it must have a definite topic 
statement, the development or proof of that statement, and 
a conclusion enforcing it. 

The same principle of logic which underlies all mathematical 
processes governs as surely the organization of the English 
paragraph. Let us, for example, analyze a paragraph and 
compare it with a problem in geometry. 

The following paragraph from Professor Barrett Wendell's 
English Composition (1891) will serve our purpose: 

[The opening transitional sentence is omitted.] [TOPIC] 
The principle, then, [that the chief parts of a composition should 
be so placed as readily to catch the eye] is not only theoretically 
applicable to paragraphs, but to a great degree actually so 
applicable in practice. [BODY] How conspicuous the chief 
places in any paragraph are, a glance at any printed page will 
show. Trained or untrained, the human eye cannot help dwelling 
instinctively a little longer on the beginnings and the ends of 
paragraphs than on any other points in the discourse. Let any 
one of you take up a book or an article, hitherto strange, and 
try in a few minutes to get some notion of what it is about. 
Whoever has tried to do even very little reviewing for the news- 
papers, whoever has tried to collect authorities for a legal 
brief, — knows the experience disagreeably well. First, you 
instinctively look at the beginning of the article or book, then 
at the end; then, turning over the pages, you skim them, — in 
other words, you glance at the beginning and at the end of each 
paragraph, to see whether it is a thing you wish to read more 
carefully. And if the paragraphs in question be well massed, 
you are made aware of it by the fact that the process of intelli- 
gent skimming is mechanically easy: that you can, apparently 
by instinct, arrest your attention on those parts which serve 
your purpose. If, on the other hand, as is more frequently the 
case, the paragraphs in question be ill massed, you find difficulty 
in discovering what you want. [CONCLUSION] All this is quite 
independent of sentence-structure, and of unity, and of coherence. 
It is a simple question of visible, external outline: and it means, 
in other words, that the beginning and the end of a paragraph 
are beyond doubt the fittest places for its chief ideas, and so for 
its chief words. 

67 



The Geometric Problem 



Proposition : The principle that the chief parts of a composition 
(Topic should he so placed as readily to catch the eye is 

sentence.) applicable in practice to the paragraph 
Given: That the chief parts of a composition should be so 

placed as readily to catch the eye. 
To Prove: That this principle is applicable in practice to the 

paragraph. 
Proof: 1. A glance at any printed page will show how 

conspicuous the chief places in any paragraph are. 

2. The human eye cannot help dwelling a little 
longer on the beginnings and the ends of para- 
graphs than on any other points . . . 

3. Whoever has tried to do . . . reviewing ... or to 
collect authorities . . . knows the experience . . . 

(1) The process: First, you instinctively look at 
the beginning of the article, then at the end; 
then . . . you look at the beginning and at 
the end of each paragraph . . . 

(2) The results: 

(a) And if the paragraphs ... be well 
massed, you are made aware of it by 
the fact that the process of intelligent 
skimming is mechanically easy .... 

(b) If, on the other hand, . . . the para- 
graphs ... be ill massed, you find diffi- 
culty in discovering what you want. 

Conclusion: All this . . . means . . . that the beginning and the 

(Q. E. D.) end of a paragraph are beyond doubt the fittest 

places for its chief ideas and so for its chief words. 

Such an analysis reveals a close analogy between the funda- 
mental parts and functions of the paragraph and the geometric 
problem.* 

Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in the Paragraph 

Unity. The initial test of paragraph unity is the topic state- 
ment, the subject stated as a proposition, — that is, in a full 
sentence. Unless the writer has thus crystalized the main 
thought at the very outset, he will have no gauge by which to 
test the relevancy and validity of the ideas which come swarm- 
ing in about the central thought. 

The ultimate test of paragraph unity is the ability to condense 

the whole paragraph into a single gist sentence. This may or 

may not, — though in the well rounded paragraph it usually does — 

coincide closely with the concluding sentence. 

*This comparison was suggested by a somewhat similar exercise 
in "A Study of the Paragraph" by Helen Thomas (1912). 

68 



Coherence. In every paragraph, as in every longer composi- 
tion, there are two kinds of coherence or connection, internal and 
external. The first and the more vital is seen in the logical 
ordering of the sentences so that each introduces the next; it is 
a matter of thought growth, which goes on on a large scale in 
the mind before any attempt is made to set thought down. (See 
Model Outline.) The second and the more artificial is seen in 
the use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences for no other 
purpose than to link, and is generally the result of careful 
revision atter the thought has been set down. (See Devices of 
Connection.) The first, organization, is indispensable; the 
second, the use of transitional devices, is usually helpful, but is 
never sufficient in itself. 

Emphasis: In the passage quoted above, Professor Wendell 
has already shown that "the beginning and the end of a para- 
graph are beyond doubt the fittest places for its chief ideas." 
Beyond this, it need only be said, apply the principle of propor- 
tion, giving space according to the relative importance of the 
ideas. (See Deductive Paragraph below.) 

Types of Paragraphs 

1. With relation to types of discourse: 

(1) Expository (all methods of development; see 4 below). 

(3) Argumentative (see 4 (8) below). 

(3) Narrative (group of related incidents).- 

(4) Descriptive (details and illustrations). 

2, With relation to their function in the composition: 

(1) Introductory: (a) announces topic, (b) justifies choice 

of topic, (c) sometimes divides subject -(outline). 

(2) Defining (more rare): interprets topic in other terms. 

(3) Outlining: formal enumeration of divisions of subject. 

(4) Developing. — The model paragraph: always topic state- 

ment, development, (generally) conclusion (infer- 
ence) or summary. 

(5) Transitional: restatement of old topic, announcement 

of new, statement of relationship between the two. 

(6) Summarizing: formal recapitulation of main divisions 

of subject as proved. (Cf. outline paragraph.) 

(7) Concluding: comprehensive restatement of main 

proposition as proved; inference. (Cf. introd. fl, (a).) 

69 



3. With relation to order of parts: 

(1) Deductive: normal order with topic sentence at 

beginning. 

(2) Inductive: order reversed with topic sentence at end; 

especially adapted to the treatment of a difficult, 
abstract subject. 
See examples below. 

4. With relation to methods of development: 

(1) Repetition: restating the thought in other words, with 

occasional repetition of key words and consistent 
use of pronoun reference. 

(2) Particulars and details: from large to small, general 

to specific. (Found especially in description.) 
1 3) Instances: concrete facts; actual things or occur- 
rences illustrating the application of the principle 
under discussion. 

(4) Illustrations: imaginary, hypothetical instances; ex- 

amples. 

(5) Comparison: likeness, especially to something fami- 

liar; analogy. 

(6) Contrast: unlikeness. especially to something familiar. 

We can always understand the new better by 
comparing and contrasting it with the old. 
1 7) Cause and effect i in either direction): one truth 
discovers another: one operation grows out of or 
leads to another; inferences. 
(S) Argument: formal proof by any one or a combination 
of (3), (4), [i5>]. [(6)], (7), especially (7); 
deductive reasoning; aim to convince. 
A paragraph may be developed by any one of these methods 
alone or by a combination of them. In common practice, how- 
ever, it is seldom that we find one absolutely pure. The methods 
vary according to the exigencies of the occasion, the mental 
preparedness of the audience, and the nature of the subject. 
EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION 

DEDUCTION. [TOPIC] The circle of human nature, then, is 
not complete without the arc of feeling and emotion. [DEVEL- 
OPMENT] The lilies of the field have a value for us beyond their 
botanical ones — a certain lightening of the heart accompanies 
the declaration that "Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed 
like one of these." The sound of the village bell which comes 
mellowed from the valley to the traveller upon the hill, has a 
value beyond its acoustical one. The setting sun when it 

70 



mantles with the bloom of roses the alpine snows, has a value 
beyond its optical one. The starry heavens, as you know, had 
for Immanuel Kant a value beyond their astronomical one 
Round about the intellect sweeps the horizon of emotions from 
which all our noblest impulses are derived. I think it very 
desirable to keep this horizon open; not to permit either priest 
or philosopher to draw down his shutters between you and it. 
And here the dead languages, which are sure to be beaten by 
science in the purely intellectual fight, have an irresistible claim. 
They supplement the work of science by exalting and refining the 
aesthetic faculty, and must on this account be cherished ty all 
who desire to see human culture complete. There must be a 
reason for the fascination which these languages have so long 
exercised upon the most powerful and elevated minds — a fascina- 
tion which will probably continue for men of Greek and Roman 
mould to the end of time. — From An Address to Students (Univer- 
sity College, London, 1868-69), by John Tyndall (1820-1893). 

See also Professor Wendell's paragraph quoted above. 

INDUCTION: What (besides better hours, better wages, 
healthier conditions) are the points of a good job? Imagine a 
sensible man looking for a satisfactory work, a vocational adviser 
guiding novices toward the best available occupation, and a 
statesman trying to mold the industrial world somewhat nearer 
to the heart's desire — what should they try for? Physical and 
financial standards determine what we get out of a job. But 
what shall get in it? [TOPIC] Much or little, I think, accord- 
ing to its fitness or unfitness for our personality, — a factor much 
neglected nowadays. [The author's succeeding paragraph begins: 
"Among the points of a good job I shall name seven . . ."] — Prom 
The Call of the Job by Richard Clarke Cabot (1868—), The 
Atlantic Monthly (November, 1913). 

Thus the matter of life, so far as we know it (and we have no 
right to speculate on any other), breaks up, in consequence of 
that continual death which is the condition of its manifesting 
vitality, into carbonic acid, water, and nitrogenous compounds, 
which certainly possess no properties but those of the ordinary 
matter. And out of these same forms of ordinary matter, and 
from none which are simpler, the vegetable world builds up all 
the protoplasm which keeps the animal world going. [TOPIC] 
Plants are the accumulators of the power which animals dis- 
tribute and disperse. — Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-95). 

The following extract illustrates the effective use of the 
inductive method in adapting an abstract subject to the imma- 
ture mind: 

'Well, there is something still more hidden than air, more 
invisible, more difficult to detect. It is everywhere, absolutely 
everywhere, even in us; but it keeps itself so quiet that until 
now you have never heard of it ... . You might seek in vain by 
yourselves all day, all the year, perhaps all your life; you would 

71 



not find it. The thing I am speaking of, you understand, is singu- 
larly well hidden; scholars had to make very delicate researches 
to learn anything about it. Let us make use of the means they 
have taught us to bring it to light." 

Uncle Paul took from his desk a stick of sealing-wax and 
rubbed it rapidly over his cloth sleeve; then he put it near a 
small piece of paper. The children were all eyes. Behold the 
paper flies up and sticks to the sealing-wax. The experiment is 
repeated several times. Each time the paper rises unaided, starts 
off, and fastens on to the stick. 

"The piece of sealing-wax which formerly did not attract the 
paper, now does. The rubbing on the cloth has, then, developed 
in it something that cannot be seen, for the stick has not changed 
in appearance; and this invisible thing is nevertheless very real, 
since it can lift up the paper, draw it to the wax, and hold it 
glued there. This thing is called electricity "* 

DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION EXPLAINED AND 
ILLUSTRATED 

Probably there is not one here who has not in the course of 
the day had occasion to set in motion a complex train of reason- 
ing, of the very same kind, though differing of course in degree, 
as that which a scientific man goes through in tracing the causes 
of natural phenomena. 

A very trivial circumstance will serve to exemplify this. 
Suppose you go into a fruiterer's shop, wanting an apple, — you 
take up one, and, on biting it, you find it is sour; you look at 
it, and see that it is hard and green. You take up another one, 
and that too is hard, green, and sour. The shopman offers you 
a third; but, before biting it, you examine it, and find that it is 
hard and green, and you immediately say that you will not have 
it, as it must be sour, like those that you have already tried. 

Nothing can be more simple than that, you think; but if you 
will take the trouble to analyze and trace out into its logical 
elements what has been done by the mind, you will he greatly 
surprised. In the first place you have performed the operation 
of induction. You found that in two experiences, hardness and 
greenness in apples went together with sourness. It is so in 
the first case, and it was confirmed by the second. True, it 
is a very small basis, but still it is enough to make an induction 
from; you generalize the facts, and you expect to find sourness 
in apples where you get hardness and greenness. You found 
upon that a general law that all hard and green apples are sour; 
and that, so far as it goes, is a perfect induction. Well, having 
got your natural law in this way, when you are offered another 
apple which you find is hard and green, you say, "All hard and 
green apples are sour; this apple is hard and green, therefore 
this apple is sour." That train of reasoning is what logicians 

*From "The Story-Book of Science" by Jean-Henri Fabre. translated 
by Florence Constable Bicknell (Century Co., 1918). 

72 



call a syllogism, and has all its various parts and terms, — its 
major premiss, its minor premiss, and its conclusion. And by 
the help of further reasoning, 'which, if drawn out, would have 
to be exhibited in two or three other syllogisms, you arrive at 
your final determination, "I will not have that apple." So 
that, you see, you have, in the first place, established a law by 
induction, and upon that you have founded a deduction, and 
reasoned out the special particular case. Well now, suppose, 
having got your conclusion of the law, that at some time after- 
wards, you are discussing the qualities of apples with a friend: 
you will say to him, "It is a very curious thing, — but I find 
that all hard and green apples are sour!" Your friend says 
to you, "But how do you know that?" You at once reply, 
"Oh, because I have tried them over and over again, and have 
always found them to be so." Well, if we were talking science 
instead of common sense, we should call that an experimental 
verification. And, if still opposed, you go further, and say, "I 
have heard from the people in Somersetshire and Devonshire, 
where a large numiber of apples are grown, that they have 
observed the same thing. It is also found to be the case in Nor- 
mandy, and in North America. In short, I find it to be the 
universal experience of mankind wherever attention has been 
directed to the subject." Whereupon, your friend, unless he 
is a very unreasonable man, agrees with you, and is convinced 
that you are quite right in the conclusion you have drawn. 
He believes, although perhaps he does not know he believes it, 
that the more extensive verifications are, — that the more fre- 
quently experiments have been made, and the results of the same 
kind arrived at, — that the more varied the conditions under 
which the same results are attained, the more certain is the 
ultimate conclusion, and he disputes the question no further. 
He sees that the experiment has been tried under all sorts of 
conditions, as to time, place, and people, with the same result; 
and he says with you therefore, that the law you have laid down 
must be a good one, and he must believe it. . . , 

So much, then, by way of proof that the method of estab- 
lishing laws in science is exactly the same as that pursued in 
common life. Let us now turn to another matter (though 
really it is but another phase of the same question), and that 
is, the method by which, from the relations of certain phe- 
nomena,we prove that some stand in the position of causes 
towards the others. 

I want to put the case clearly before you, and I will there- 
fore show you what I mean by another familiar example. I 
will suppose that one of you, on coming down in the morning to 
the parlor of your house, finds that a tea-pot and some spoons 
which had been left in the room on the previous evening are 
gone, — the window is open, and you observe the mark of a 
dirty hand on the window-frame, and perhaps, in addition to 
that, you notice the impress of a hob-nailed shoe on the gravel 

73 



outside. All these phenomena have struck your attention 
instantly, and before two seconds have passed you say, "Oh, 
somebody has broken open the window, entered the room, and 
run off with the spoons and the tea-pot!" That speech is out 
of your mouth in a moment. And ycu will probably add, "I 
know there has; I am quite sure of it!" You mean to say 
exactly what you know; but in reality you are giving expression 
to what is, in all essential particulars, an hypothesis. Ycu 
did not know it at all; it is nothing but an hypothesis rapidly 
framed in your own mind. And it is an hypothesis founded on 
a long train of inductions and deductions. 

What are those inductions and deductions, and how have 
you got at this hypothesis? You have observed in the first 
place, that the window is open; but by a train of reasoning 
involving many inductions and deductions, you have probably 
arrived long before at the general law — and a very good onb 
it is — that windows do not open of themselves; and you there- 
fore conclude that something has opened the window. A second 
general law that you have arrived at in the same way is, that 
tea-pots ard spoons do not go out of a window spontaneouslv 
and you are satisfied that, as they are not now where you left 
them, they have been removed. In the third place, you look 
at the marks on the window-sill, and the shoe-marks outside, 
and you say that in all previous experience the former kind 
of mark has never been produced by anything else but the hand 
of a human being; and the same experience shows that no other 
animal but man at present wears shoes with hob-nails in them 
such as would produce the marks in the gravel. I do not know, 
even if we could discover any of those "missing links" that are 
talked about, that they would help us to any other conclusion! 
At any rate the law wmich states our present experience is strong 
enough for my present purpose. You next reach the conclusion 
that, as these kinds of marks have not been left by any other 
animal than man, or are liable to be formed in any other way 
than by a man's hand and shoe, the marks in question have 
been formed by a man in that way. You have, further, a general 
law. founded on observations and experience, and that, too, is. 
I am sorry to say, a very universal and unimpeachable one, — 
that some men are thieves; and you assume at once from all 
these premisses — and that is what constitutes your hypothesis — 
that the man who made the marks outside and on the window- 
sill opened the window, got into the rocm and stole your tea- 
pot and spoons. You have now arrived at a vera causa; — you 
have assumed a cause which, it is plain, is competent to produce 
all the phenomena you have observed. You can explain all these 
phenomena only by the hypothesis of a thief. But that is a 
hypothetical conclusion, of the justice of which you have no 
absolute proof at all; it is only rendered highly probable by a 
series of inductive and deductive reasonings.* 

*T. H. Huxley, "The Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature," 
in "Darwiniana." 

74 



EXERCISE IN PARAGRAPH AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE 

1. Has the paragraph a distinct topic sentence. What is its 
position? 

2. Has the paragraph a distinct concluding sentence? 

3. Does the paragraph read smoothly; that is, is the coherence 
well effected? 

4. Does the writer secure variety in sentence structure? 

5. Re-write the paragraph, reconstructing faulty sentences and 
supplying the necessary transitions. 

(1) The coach in choosing his men for a crew must take into 
consideration many things which a good crew man should have. 
(2) He must in other Words size his men up and do so with the 
utmost care. (3) The crew man is generally well developed 
physically, he should have a long reach of arm, powerful shoul- 
ders and arms, a strong back, and sturdy thickset legs. (4) Row- 
ing is very strenuous exercise and a crew man should have 
endurance and good wind. (5) Crew develops the mind as well 
as the body and the training a man receives, if he is fortunate 
enough to make a seat on the crew, serves him in many ways 
when he is out of college. (6) He is of good physique, has good 
health, which prepares him for work later on. (7) These things 
come about by the training he is put through, as for instance 
training table at which he receives only such food as will produce 
muscle and bone. (8) Rowing on the crew develops tne mind as 
the various exercises he does trains his mind to work with 
precision. (9) Another advantage to the crew man is that his 
work is mostly out of doors where he has the use of good fresh 
air at all times. — From a student theme. 



75 



VII 
COHERENCE 

THE coherence of a composition is attained in two ways: 
(1) by logical arrangement (internal organization), the 
result of careful revision or planning; and (2) by the use 
of special transitional devices, generally the result of thorough 
revision. The following exercises illustrate the two methods: 
MODEL OUTLINE 
"Two Kinds of Education for Engineers" 
By John Butler Johnson 
(Aydelotte, English and Engineering, pp. 107-124.) 

A. INTRODUCTION: Topic; its importance, definitions: 

I. Definition and importance of Education 

{General); (l| 1) 

II. Division of subject — 2 kinds of education 

(Outline) ; (fl 2) 

III. Definition of each kind: 

1. Competency to serve. (fl 3) 

2. Competency to appreciate and enjoy. (1| 4) 

B. BODY: The Engineer must be a well balanced man: 

(fs 5-14) 
I. Neither kind of education is adequate in itself: 

1. Two extremes contrasted (General); (1[-5) 

2. Narrow technical man contrasted to well 

rounded citizen (More specific). (fl 6) 

II. Ideal engineering education embraces both kinds: 

(fs 7-14) 

1. Competency to serve: (fl's 7-10) 

a. Preparation in college — (fl's 7-9) 

(1) Theory— (fl's 7-8) 

(a) Qualitative knowledge, 

(b) Quantitative knowledge, 

(2) Practice; (fl 9) 

b. Work after college. (fl 10) 

2. Competency to appreciate and enjoy: (1['s 11-13) 

a. Demand for breadth of mind as well 

as technical skill; (fl 11) 

' 76 






b. Means of meeting this demand — (ff's 12-13) 

(1) Elevating associations, (fl 12) 

(2) Wide reading. (fl 13) 
III. An objection anticipated — Author does not depre- 
ciate work of engineering school. (ff 14) 

C. CONCLUSION: Appeal to audience; 

I. Engineer is charged with his responsibility 

(technical) ; (II 15) 

II. Huxley's definition of the well developed man 

(cultural) (U's 16-17) 

ADOPT THIS AS A MODEL IN FORM FOR YOUR OUTLINES. 

Note: The real purpose of this outline is to reveal the 
author's architectural plan, the organization of parts, the logical 
progression, which must precede the full presentation of his 
broad, abstract subject. An outline is essential to the intelligent 
and intelligible treatment of any subject worth the while. 

As the outline is but a framework, it cannot be expected to 
record the fine transitions of the finished article. Any process 
of classification, it should be remembered, is more or less arbi- 
trary. It is convenient to distinguish between parts, but this 
very distinction tends to obscure the relationship between parts. 
A synthetic view, however, usually makes the connection 
reasonably clear. 

DEVICES OF CONNECTION 

["first, second, third, etc.; first, sec- 

1. To imply a SERIES fondly, thirdly, etc.,; in the first 

I place, again, furthermore, finally, 
[lastly, etc. 

[and, also, besides, moreover, again, 

2. To imply SIMPLE .{finally, after, next, when, further, 
ADDITION furthermore, in addition; it remains 

I to explain; then, too; another, etc. 

|"he, she, it, they, this, those, that, 

3. To indicate J these, etc.; the former, the latter; 
REFERENCE | in this respect, in this way, such, 

[the same, etc. 

77 



4. To express 
COMPARISON 



(likewise, similarly, in the same 
j way, equally important. more 
j effective, quite as necessary, not so 
<j obvious, the analogy is clear, 

resembling this, in conformity with. 

corresponding to this, no less 

significant, etc. 

("however, but, rather, on the other 
I hand, on the contrary, nevertheless, 

5. To express CONTRAST <| notwithstanding, although, yet, 

whereas, in contrast to, in spite of. 
j opposed to this, at the same time, 
[to offset this, etc. 

fto this end, for this purpose, with 

6. To indicate PURPOSE ^ this in view, to effect this, to attain 

[this object, to meet this need, etc. 

("therefore, hence, then, accordingly. 
j so. wherefore, for this reason, it 
j follows that, as a result, under 
< these conditions, if this be true. 

consequently, obviously, naturally. 

it is clear, the effect is, as might be 

expected, thus, in short, granted 

that, etc. 



7. To indicate RESULT 



To express 
CHANGE OF TIME 



9. To express 

CHANGE OF PLACE 



'at length, next. soon, afterward, 

whereupon, immediately, after a 

j short time, not long after, at last, 

j finally, meanwhile, later, ultimately, 

j etc. 

['here, there, yonder, beyond, nearby. 

opposite, adjacent to, roundabout. 
I diagonally to. on the other side. 

underneath, above, in either place. 

eastward, southward, farther on. 

etc. 

ffor example, for instance, espe- 
10. To PARTICULARIZE -J cially, indeed, at any rate, specific- 
ally, in particular, at least, to 
illustrate, a case in point, etc. 



'S 



11. To ENFORCE the 
THOUGHT 



12. OTHER MEANS OF 
TRANSITION 



truly, really, surely, assuredly, in 
truth, indeed, in fact, very likely, 
certainly, perhaps, naturally, of 
course, at all events, doubtless, 
logically, strictly speaking, the 
point is, that is to say, in other 
words, etc. 

repetition of words or thought; 
parallel structure (that is, a similar 
order of elements in successive 
sentences). 



N. B. — This is a suggestive, not an exhaustive, list of transi- 
tional words and phrases. Your reading will offer further de- 
vices. 

EXERCISE IN ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL 

NOTE. — Construct a logical outline; (b) supply the necessary 
transitions; (c) re-paragraph; (d) apply the principle of pro- 
portion; (e) improve the sentence structure as required. 

Opportunities For Young Foresters 

1. Forestry is generally regarded as unpractical by people in 
the United States because either they do not see the value of 
our forests, or they look at some work of forestry carried out by 
an inexperienced man where the whole job has resulted in a 
complete failure. 2. There is in the United States today a great 
number of positions open to the trained forester. 3. The largest 
number of these positions is with the government. 4. In the 
government work the young forester gets the greatest amount 
of practical experience, because he may be sent to the different 
parts of the United States to carry on some important work 
there. 5. In the work of the United States Forest Service 
Commission, the college trained forester meets with many 
problems to solve, and in many cases he has to abandon his 
technical ideas and to solve the problem according to the nature 
of the surrounding country. 6. There are beginning to be 
openings in research work in the United States. 7. This was 
practically unknown in this country a few years ago, but has 
been carried on in Germany for many years. 8. The most 
important work that the forester will do in research is in the 



79 



study of wood chemicals, both organic and inorganic. 9. The 
forester will carry on a thorough study of wood entomology for 
the government. 10. Forestry is carried on very little by private 
individuals in the United States. 11. The government is making 
some of the individuals and railroads see that the practice of 
forestry does pay and a few are beginning to practise forestry 
on their lands that are not suited for agriculture. 12. Therefore, 
there is a great call for trained and experienced foresters to 
carry out the work. 13. In time all the individuals and railroad 
companies that own land will see the value of forestry and 
practise forestry extensively on all their idle land, and a large 
number of foresters will be required to carry out this work. 
14. Many large lumber concerns are beginning to employ experi- 
enced foresters to harvest their lumber, because the forester is 
trained to make definite plans as to the best way to lumber a 
tract of timber. 15. In some localities the farmers are practising 
"woodlot" forestry. They are beginning to build up their wood- 
lots and are employing the trained forester. 16. The farmers 
are beginning to see that they must have wood to run the farm 
and that the woodlot is the place to get this wood. 17. The 
United States government is employing men to show the farmers 
who do not realize the need of forestry, that forestry must be 
practised extensively in the United States, or the timber supply 
will be exhausted in a few years. 19. The state governments are 
employing men to show the farmers how to use their waste land 
and to get returns from it. 20. Many states are starting schools 
and colleges of forestry. 21. They require many experienced and 
trained men for instructors. 22. Many experienced and practical 
men are needed to take charge of the Forest Service Commission 
at Washington. 22. The many openings and opportunities must 
give a man some place for him to try his ability as a forester. 



80 



VIII 

WORDS 

ff^rOUR words were not as clear as they should have been. 
True, it is only a trifling thing; but so is mist on a mirror." 
Thus wrote Mark Twain in kindly criticism of the work 
of a young writer. "The engraver of a fine picture," he went on, 
"revises, .and revises, and revises — and then revises, and revises, 
and revises; and then repeats. And always the charm of that 
picture grows, under his hand. It was good enough before — told 
its story, and was beautiful. True: and a lovely girl is lovely, 
with freckles; but she isn't at her level best with them." Then 
Mark seizes upon the single word motive, which he charges the 
writer with misusing: "When a word is so near the right one 
that a body can't quite tell whether it is or isn't, it's good politics 
to strike it out and go for the Thesaurus. That's all. Motive 
may stand; but you have allowed a snake to scream, and I will 
not concede that that was the best word." 

The Function of the Diction aey 

"Strike it out and go for the Thesaurus," is excellent advice, 
for the dictionary w T as designed for the very purpose of setting 
us right in our use of words. It has brought together in one place, 
easy of access, all the words we are likely to need in our own 
expression or to find in centuries of English literature. It is 
essentially a "record of the usage of its time," and gives not 
only the pronunciation, the derivation, and the meaning of a 
word, but also its standing in the scale of reputability. It 
records all words, but it does not accept them all. There are 
many words of doubtful propriety, but they are always carefully 
distinguished from the approved list by such warning labels as 
the following: colloquial, vulgar, cant, slang, obsolete, archaic, 
foreign, etc. In these matters the dictionary is, for all practical 
purposes, an undisputed authority. 

The Authority of the Dictionary 

But whence is its authority derived? It is derived from the 
faithful observation of the practice of the majority of the 
effective writers and speakers of the time. It is based not solely 

81 



upon the usage of the so-called "masters of literature," hut upon 
that of clear and convincing writers and speakers everywhere, 
regardless of their special interests. In other words, the diction- 
ary has authority only as it has widespread social approval. 

It is natural, then, that the dictionary should be more or less 
conservative. Though the language is undergoing a constant 
change, though many good words of Chaucer's and of Shake- 
speare's time have been relegated to the ranks of the obsolete, 
and though some of our present terms are destined soon to be 
replaced by new inventions, the change, nevertheless, proceeds 
very naturally and slowly. It is, therefore, not for the individual 
to blaze a new trail; he must hesitate to adopt new words (slang, 
foreign terms, etc.) and new meanings for old words until these 
have been sanctioned by the best dictionaries. Words which 
appear in the dictionary without a warning label must first have 
stood the test of wide and reputable use. The dictionary records 
usage, it does not create it. 

The Advantages of Wokd Study 

We consult the dictionary chiefly as a matter of necessity. 
Usually we have one of two purposes; namely, to learn the 
meaning of an unfamiliar word, or less often, to find the precise 
word that will express a given idea. The man who has the first 
purpose is the intensive reader and is in the way to derive much 
benefit from the dictionary habit. But the man who couples this 
with the second purpose — to find the exact word — is the writer, 
the creator, rather than the reader or the critic merely, and he 
is certain to gain infinitely more. 

We must find the inevitable word. As a rule, we have the 
general idea, a vague conception of what we wish to say, but 
cannot summon up the concrete symbol of its special sense. 
We then look in the vocabulary to some word which seems to 
approximate the desired meaning. We study its etymology to 
discover its literal or historical value; we consider its special 
uses; and if it does not meet our purpose, we refer to its 
synonyms, and by a process of selection and elimination corner 
the elusive word. If the original word offers the wrong clue, we 
trace another through all the avenues. A patient search cannot 
fail. 

But this process not only runs down the right word; it also 
draws our attention to many associated words which are not a 



part of our stock in trade. Some unknown or unfamiliar 
synonyms of the original word are forced upon our notice and 
almost, if not quite, unconsciously stored away for future use. 
We associate, for instance, bishop with episcopacy [AS. biscop, 
< Lat. episcopus, { Gr. episcopos. £ epi, upon, + scopeo, look 
at] ; we find that the words mean overseer and office of overseer. 
and that the root is the same little English scope, which is found 
also in microscopy telescope, spectroscope, etc. Spectroscope 
suggests specter, spectrum, spectacle, spectacles (eye glasses), 
spectacular, etc.; and spectacle suggests the synonymn exhibi- 
tion, scene, view, sight, etc. One word suggests another, and so, 
both consciously and unconsciously, the dictionary habit pro- 
motes vocabulary growth. 

There is, accordingly, no valid excuse for an impoverished 
vocabulary. The chief objection to slang,, perhaps, is that it 
tends to limit one's range of words. It is a "vagabond" and 
indifferent mode of expression particularly deep-seated in the 
ranks of the indolent and the uneducated, and its habitual use 
implies contented ignorance. Spoken slang, to be sure, is gen- 
erally understood, but it should be remembered that it is associ- 
ated with the reinforcing agencies of facial expression and of 
gesture. Dignified speech, on the other hand, needs no such 
reinforcement; it is adequate in itself. Rather than search his 
own limited vocabulary or that of the dictionary, the user of 
slang is satisfied to half-express and to half-suggest his thought. 
His indolence stunts his vocabulary growth and proportionately 
dwarfs his intellect. If the student, with all the advantages of 
his environment, is found in this class of slangmongers, it is of 
his own election. 

Besides greater precision in diction, there is another com- 
pensating advantage of word study. As words are but symbols 
of ideas, it is clear that more words mean more ideas, and a 
wider range of ideas means a broader vision and a keener un- 
derstanding of life and its problems. 

A less tangible, yet none the less real, benefit is the sharpen- 
ing of the intellect. To distinguish between the many words of 
related meaning which cluster about a general idea, not only 
gives one a better conception of the central idea, but also 
exacts the nicest discrimination and stimulates general intellec- 
tual activity. The more extensive the practice, the more efficient 
the operation of all the faculties. Finally, the increased range 

83 



and the consequent precision and spontaneity of thought and 
expression induce in the writer or speaker a greater confidence 
(subjective) in his reasoning as well as in his language, and 
insures conviction (objective) in his readers or his audience. 
Let us, therefore, use the dictionary as a means to greater 
efficiency. 

Good Use 

A word is said to be in good use when it enjoys social sanction; 
or when, as commonly tested, it is in (1) reputable, (2) national, 
and (3) present use. The scale of good use, from the highest to 
the lowest, is as follows: (1) reputable or literary English, 
(2) colloquial (informal, conversational, as isn't), (3) pro- 
vincial (peculiar to a large territory but not national, as reckon 
for think). (4) local (limited to a small area, as the L, the 
subway, and the tube in New York City), (5) slang (careless 
expressions; often coarse, grotesque, and violent; usually evan- 
escent; as fire out for discharged, beat it for run away), (6) vul- 
gar (offensive to good taste, degrading language; as chaw for 
cheio, to crown for to strike on the head). The first three are 
"respectable" English; the last three are of more or less doubtful 
propriety. 

The New English Dictionary gives the following diagram: 
Scientific • Foreign 

\ / 

Literary 

Technical ( COMMON ) Dialect 

Colloquial 

I 
Slang 

The Dictionaries 

1. Webster's Neiv International Dictionary (G. & C. Merriam 
Company, 1909): one volume; excellent for all ordinary require- 
ments; good in discriminating synonyms. 

2. The New Standard Dictionary (Punk & Wagnalls Company, 
1913): one volume; very complete; good on commercial and 
technical terms; very modern, being less conservative than 
Webster's. 

3. Century Dictionary and Encyclopedia (The Century Com- 
pany) : twelve volumes; exhaustive, combining the functions of 

84 



a dictionary with those of an encyclopedia; contains much useful 
material on the arts, trades, and professions. 

4. New English Dictionary, or "Murray's Dictionary" (Oxford 
University Press): several volumes, series yet incomplete; very 
thorough; generally regarded as the final authority on the history 
of words. 

5. Skeat's Etymological Dictionary of the English Language 
(Oxford) : authority on derivations. 

6. Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (Long- 
mans, Green & Company): an excellent desk book to help one 
find the exact word; synonyms and antonyms in all parts of 
speech. 

7. Fernald's English Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions 
(Punk & Wagnalls) : excellent for distinctions between words 
of similar meanings. 

8. Crabb's English Synonyms (E. P. Dutton & Company.) 

9. Soule's Dictionary of English Synonyms. 

EXERCISES IN WORD STUDY 

1. For dictionary practice, look up the following, noting their 
derivations: oesophagus, praemunire, wit, flag, fete, voice, vol- 
plane, void, vociferous, buoyant, cooperate, auxiliary, f. o. b., 
liabilities, debit, prospect, insolvent, N. B., viz., paraphernalia, 
securities, legitimate, civic, technical, vice versa. 

2. Definition is an aid to alert and accurate thinking. Every 
definition consists of two parts: (1) the genus, or class to which 
the object belongs; and (2) the differentia, or the distinguishing 
qualities which give it a special place in that class. For example, 
"a circle is [genus] a plane figure [differentia] contained by one 
line everywhere equally distant from a point within called the 
center;" or "elasticity is [genus] the power of bodies [differentia] 
to recover their form after compression." 

Never define a word in terms of itself. 

After the models above, write out definitions of the following: 
nature, science, technique, chemistry, engineering, manufactory, 
area, hydraulics, alternative, creditor, statistics, linotype, 
dynamo, domestic, electrolysis, resistance, energy, jurisdiction, 
seminary, education, geometry, proportion, space, equilibrium, 
data, sphere, residue, universal, wm'rant, oxygen, acid, logic, 
synthesis, dimension, color. 

3. Without the dictionary or other help, define each of the 
general terms below and name as many of its synonyms as you 

85 



can: see, speak, give. take, rough, even, dull, sharp, ivalk. sound. 
make, hard, cruel, bright, soil. sell, letter, send, write, control, 
fire, atmosphere, swift. 

4. Discriminate the following synonyms: class, type, standard. 
norm; timber, lumber, wood, plank, board; passenger, traveler, 
tourist, voyager; expand, dilate, enlarge, increase, multiply ; com- 
partment, department; architect, contractor, builder, mason; 
channel, canal, ditch, gutter, furrow; disposition, disposal; scien- 
tific, technical; examine, inspect, test; plan, scheme, proposition, 
project; prospectus, specifications, contract, agreement; catalog, 
bulletin, register, record; newspaper, magazine, journal, period- 
ical; passage, hall, corridor, vestibule; impact, impetus, momen- 
tum, propulsion; mechanic, artisan, artificer, artist; condense, 
concentrate, reduce, curtail; economy, efficiency, effectiveness, pro- 
ficiency ; practical, practicable, feasible, possible; calculation, 
estimate, bid; liquid, fluid, series, sequence; flexible, pliable, 
malleable; minute, microscopic, granular, molecular, atomic; 
tube, pipe, conduit, main; compound, composition, combination; 
important, necessary, indispensable, fundamental, vital; adapt, 
adjust, regulate, repair; implement, tool, instrument, utensil; 
practical, useful, utilitarian; business, occupation, employment, 
pursuit: vocation, avocation. 



86 



IX 
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE 

THE BUSINESS LETTER 

<ctT is of the greatest importance to write letters well," wrote 
Lord Chesterfield to his son; "as this is a talent which un- 
avoidably occurs every day of one's life, as well in business 
as in pleasure; and inaccuracies in orthography or in style are 
never pardoned but in ladies." 

Though Lord Chesterfield gave this advice nearly two hundred 
years ago (1738), it was never sounder than it is to-day. With 
the marvelous development of our industrial and commercial 
life during the last half-century, the business letter has become 
universally recognized as an indispensable medium of modern 
business. Take it away, and the whole complex system collapses. 
It is estimated that over a hundred million dollars a year is 
spent on form letters alone, and it is said that two mail-order 
concerns in Chicago do over twenty-five million dollars worth 
of business a year each. Considering time, salaries, cost of 
transportation, and actual results, the letter is cheaper and 
quicker than the personal interview. It, therefore, pays to write 
a good letter. 

The technical man cannot escape the responsibility of equip- 
ping himself to do well this phase of his professional work. 
Other things being equal, the employer prefers every time the 
man who can write effective letters; and through the letter of 
application, the employer has an opportunity almost invariably 
to test the candidate's ability in this respect before a personal 
interview is granted or any consideration is given to his strictly 
technical qualifications. But experience has shown that success- 
ful letter-writers are astonishingly rare among engineering 
graduates. Those who lack the ability soon discover the fact. 
"When the young engineer faces the problem of conducting an 
extensive correspondence, he certainly feels his unpreparedness, 
many of us handling this part of our affairs in a very unsatis- 
factory manner." So reads a letter of January 8, 1919, from a 
recent graduate of this institution, now holding a responsible 
position with one of the largest corporations in the country. 
The need has become so pronounced that again and again we 

87 



find great manufacturing concerns undertaking, through their 
house organs, to instruct their employees in the rudiments of 
business English and correspondence. 

THE STANDARD FORM 

The external, mechanical form' of the business letter is now 
practically fixed by convention. It has been evolved through 
a long period of experimentation and has been found to serve 
well. Representative business houses, therefore, look with dis- 
favor upon conspicuous deviations from the accepted standard 
as abortive and unwarranted. Such liberties tend only to divert 
the reader's attention from what one has to say, to one's manner 
of dress — which is, to say the least, poor business policy. 

"Individuality in form," writes one concern, "may lead to the 
grotesque, or the picturesque, if nothing worse. Individual taste 
may lead one to the gray scarf, another to the blue— safe, inoffen- 
sive variations. There is no logical argument against the pink 
scarf and the green shirt. They will certainly attract attention, 
as will certain individual vagaries in epistolary forms. But 
radical departures from dress or epistolary standards offend, 
unless the resulting gain, is great and immediately obvious. 

"Take, for example, the single-spaced, typed letter. It is less 
easy to read, and it hurts the operator's eyes as well as the 
reader's. It saves paper. This is apparently the only argument 
for it. Certainly it looks less well: it lacks proportion. As with 
a book, the length of the type line and the relations between 
the upper, lower, and side margins mean much to you. They 
conform to certain standards, the result of long experience, 
expert experimenting. We have adjusted our tastes, our habits to 
them. Why go to the trouble of readjustment to new forms 
unless, weighing the arguments of each side, it is evidently 
worth while? The change of habits is a strain — will it pay? 

"Again, some are advocating, as labor-saving and space-saving, 
the omission of paragraph indentation. It will save labor and 
space. It does not look so well — -at least now. We might get 
used to it and come to think it looked better. Is the slight saving 
of labor, time, and paper space sufficient reason for the strain of 
breaking away from what is customary and forming new habits?" 

"Our feeling is very strong," says another large and reputable 
house, "that fashion in letters is like all other fashion and there 
is a certain medium of dignity in discarding the old and adopting 
the new, for which no exact rule can be laid down and that the 
good taste of a house is shown in its ability to choose this happy 
medium. In short, there can be good breeding in business affairs, 
as well as in all others." 



According to a publisher of national reputation, "The vehicle 
of expression, even from a purely business standpoint, is quite 
as important as is the thing said." 

For the purposes of this course, the form of the Model Letter 
appended will be strictly adhered to as representing the practice 
of the most reputable houses. 

The Stationery 

Only white bond paper and black ink should be used for busi- 
ness letters. The size of the sheet varies slightly between a 
inches by 10 y 2 inches and 8% inches by 11 inches, usually the 
latter. A three-quarter size is sometimes used for a brief note. 
The ordinary small envelope is No. 6%, measuring 6% inches 
long by 3% inches wide. Larger envelopes may be used accord- 
ing to the size of the enclosures. 

The Mechanics of the Lettee 

I. Neatness. Care in the mechanical make-up of the letter 
is the first requisite in all business correspondence, for its gen- 
eral appearance creates in the reader's mind the first and often 
the final impression of the writer. On this point, a large manu- 
facturer writes: "Business letters are an institution in them- 
selves. They are the contacting medium of you and your 
associates. If so, the importance of the work they can and 
must do for you can hardly be overestimated. If the letter is 
to be a real realization of what you are, the question of dress 
must then be taken into serious consideration. Surely it is your 
desire to have your representatives of an appearance that will 
speak of the pride and integrity of your business." One of the 
departments of the Pennsylvania Railroad instructs its office 
staff to "do neat and perfect work." It continues more 
specifically: "The use of the erasing, knife for making corrections 

should be avoided Letters requiring corrections should be 

rewritten. . ." In a set of detailed specifications on the method 
of its correspondence, one of the Washington offices under the 
United States Department of Agriculture requires that "care 
should be taken to see that the finished letter is neat, accurate, 
and well-balanced in every respect." 

II. Parts of the Letter. The following are the parts of the 
business letter in their usual order [see Model, Letter] : 

89 



1. Address of writer and date of icriting (information) ; in 
upper right-hand corner; not more than three lines, 
beginning in a perpendicular at the left; single spacing; 
commas after first two lines, period after last. 

2. Name and Address of the Addressee (information); 
beginning at extreme left-hand margin, a double-space 
below last line of date material; usually not more than 
three lines (just as on envelope), each line beginning 
at the margin; single-spaced and punctuated as above 
(1) ; abbreviations to be used sparingly — but those com- 
monly authorized may be used in the interest of economy 
and symmetry; necessary titles or "handles" not to be 
omitted. 

3. Salutation or greeting (courtesy); My dear Sir (formal), 
Dear Sir (less formal), Gentlemen, Dear Madam, etc.; 
one line, beginning flush with left-hand margin, a double- 
space below last line of addressee material; followed by 
a colon ( : ) . 

4. Body (message) ; paragraphed according to number of 
items; first line beginning a double-space below the saluta- 
tion and a letter-space to the right of the colon (of the 
saluation) ; all paragraph indentations to begin in a 
perpendicular determined by the beginning of the first 
line; short letter to be double-spaced throughout; long 
letter may be single-spaced within paragraphs but must 
be double-spaced between paragraphs; right-hand margin 
to be as even as possible throughout page. 

5. Complimentary closing (courtesy) : Yours truly. Very 
truly yours; Respectfully yours, Very respectfully yours 
(these two to be used only in addressing persons of 
superior rank) ; centered, a double-space below last line 
of body; only first word capitalized; followed by comma 
(,) ; avoid weak participial closing (Thanking you in 
advance, I am, etc.). 

6. Signature or writer's name (information); in lower 
right-hand corner, balancing with addressee material in 
upper left-hand corner; a double-space below the com- 
plimentary closing; to be full business name, legibly 
written. 

7. Statement of enclosure: Enclosure. Enclosures tico. etc.; 
a double-space below signature, beginning flush with left- 
hand margin; may be followed by period. 

III. Two-Page Letter. The second sheet must be marked tor 
identification as follows: (1) in upper left-hand corner, flush with 
margin, initials of person addressed; (2) in center of same line, 
page number; (3) in upper right-hand corner, flush with margin 
(same line), abbreviated date in figures. For example: 

B. C. B. 2 11/3/18 

90 



IV. Semi-Formal Letter. In addressing a person with whom 
the writer is personally acquainted, one may use a somewhat 
less formal salutation and closing: (1) My dear Mr. Morrow:, 
Dear Mr. Brown:; (2) Very truly yours, Sincerely yours. The 
body of the letter should be businesslike as to a stranger, but 
it admits of a little more cordiality in expression and tone. Care 
should be taken, however, not to mix friendship and business 
too freely, as both are likely to suffer as a result. 

V. Envelope. The envelope must be neatly and legibly 
addressed as follows: (1) addressee's name (as in letter) on 
median line of envelope, centered; (2) street and number, a 
double-space below and beginning immediately under the first 
letter of the first line; (3) city and state (separated by a 
comma), a double-space below and beginning immediately under 
the first letter of the second line. The Post Office Department 
recommends that the address be kept within three lines if pos- 
sible. No end punctuation is required, except as abbreviations 
(N. Y., Mass., etc.) are used. 

Note: The law of symmetry should govern the arrangement 
of the letter on the page and of the address on the envelope. 

The Language of the Letter 

I. Clearness. The object of all writing is to be clear, but 
especially is this true of the business letter. Obscurity not only 
vexes the other party to the correspondence and shakes his con- 
fidence in the writer, but it also causes costly mistakes and 
delays. 

The desired clearness is attained by the careful observation 
of all those basic principles of composition which we have 
studied elsewhere; particularly coherence as applied in the order- 
ing and separating of the several items to be considered, and in 
the intelligent use of connectives; and accuracy as applied in 
sentence structure and choice of words. [See Accuracy] Neglect 
of such elementary matters as capitalization, punctuation, and 
spelling are not tolerated. 

The Department of Agriculture instruction sheet already 
referred to emphasizes this accuracy in matters of detail: 
"Official letters should be free from the following: (a) errors 
in typewriting, punctuation, spelling, grammar, etc.; (b) un- 
sightly erasures, pen corrections, and interlineations; (c) use 

91 



of purely commercial or colloquial expressions; (d) .... 
inconsistent use of 'I' and 'we' in same letter." 

II. Conciseness. The business letter must be brief and to 
the point. Diffuse expression not only befogs the thought but 
costs the reader precious time, all of which the writer is likely 
to pay for in the end. To compress a great deal into a few 
words does not, however, necessitate the omission of articles, 
prepositions, and verbal auxiliaries, and the unwarranted use of 
abbreviations. Yours of 16th inst. rec'd mocks at courtesy and 
good breeding, and is nowhere to be countenanced. LSee Con- 
densation.] 

III. Courtesy. The quality of courtesy in business corre- 
spondence demands first of all naturalness of style as opposed 
to the absurd (if not contemptible) abruptness of the too 
numerous stereotyped formulae in current use. The language 
must be altogether free of such hackneyed phrases as your favor, 
yours at hand, in reply would say, 19th ultimo, 'same, contents 
duly noted, beg to say. etc.; it must be fresh and original. 

Courtesy also involves an attempt to adapt the letter, in con- 
tent and tone, to the requirements and the tastes (so far as 
these are known) of the addressee. The manner and spirit of 
the whole must be conspicuously straightforward and fair, if the 
transaction is to prove mutually beneficial. The emphasis is 
upon you rather than /. 

With respect to adaptation, the manager of a great publishing 
house says, "You can not write to an author in the same way 
in which you write to a corner drug, store that sells school 
books." 

On the same point, another writes: "We try to write such 
a letter as will show the individuality of the writer. Probably 
no two persons in this large business would dictate exactly the 
same form of a communication on the same subject. We how- 
ever try to put as much of the human element into our letters 
as we can, in order to convince our readers that we do not 
represent a soulless corporation." 

Concerning courtesy, a third writes: "We hold yearningly 
fast to the few amenities and courtesies which are left in daily 
intercourse. They take time, it is true, and labor, but hats will 
still be raised and doors held open. They may be empty formali- 
ties, but those who have business to give like them, and are 

92 



influenced by them. We who have business to get have other 
reasons, personal satisfaction, for using them. The extreme 
advocates of business efficiency, sometimes lose sight of the trade 
value of the non-essentials. Economy of courtesy in business is 
poor thrift." 

In the interest of economy there has been an attempt from 
time to time to abolish the salutation and the complimentary 
closing, but it has met widespread and pronounced opposition. 
In this connection, the president of one of America's largest 
publishing houses makes this very positive statement: 

"We are not at all in sympathy with the present tendency to 
abolish the salutation and the complimenary closing. It is as 
important that these be carried in a letter as it is that a person 
should greet another courteously and part with him in a polite 
manner. In Spanish-American countries our correspondents are 
so punctilious that the salutation and the closing of their letters 
are courteous and polite in the extreme. Should we write to 
one of our correspondents in these Latin-American countries and 
fail to observe the proprieties as they understand them, they 
would pay no attention to our letters. There are certain estab- 
lished customs which are good for business people as well as 
society people to respect, and the polite salutation and closing of 
a letter which have been in vogue in this country for many 
years should not be given up. There are business people who 
appear to think that brusqueness is an evidence of business 
ability. We do not share their feeling." 

IV. Force. A good salesman is not only neat, clear, and 
tactful, but also firm and forceful in his dealings with men. So, 
too, must be the business letter, our personal representative. 
Positiveness and confidence, under intelligent control, do not 
endanger courtesy, but do, on the other hand, command atten- 
tion and respect as well as convince the correspondent of the 
merits of your case. 

The Contexts of the Letter 

The contents of the business letter will naturally vary with 
the nature of the transaction, but the general order is more or 
less definitely fixed as follows: 

1. Acknowledgment of the receipt of your correspondent's 
letter, giving the date of that letter and the subject of cor- 
respondence (the whole preferably mentioned incidentally in the 
opening sentence). 

2. Acknowledgment of possible enclosures. 

93 



3. General reply to letter — kind of topic sentence for the whole 
letter to be written (1 and 2 may sometimes he combined in 
one sentence with 3, provided they are kept properly subordinate). 

4. Detailed reply — a paragraph for each distinct item, follow- 
ing the order of the items in the correspondent's letter (this 
does not mean a paragraph for every sentence). 

5. New topics. 

THE LETTER OF APPLICATION 

In mechanics, the letter of application differs in no respect 
from the common business letter; but in content and language, 
it is far more exacting. All the requirements of general cor- 
respondence must be observed with scrupulous care, and 
especially must the applicant consciously adapt to the needs of 
the prospective employer. The applicant should remember that 
he has no opportunity to correct a first bad impression. Frank- 
ness, faithfulness, industry, and service should characterize every 
application. 

The contents of a letter of application, in order, are as follows: 
(1) specific reference to source of information about the posi- 
tion, (2) age, (3) training (education), (4) experience, (5) 
reasons for change, (6) references or testimonials with full 
directions as to persons, addresses, etc., (7) salary expected, 
(8) polite request for an interview (appointment to be made 
by the prospective employer). The information must be com- 
plete and explicit. 



94 



[Model Letter] 

617 Monroe Street, 
Syracuse, New York, 
January 20, 1919. 

The Wilson Construction Company, 

1105-1107 Baird Avenue, 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Gentlemen: 



Yours truly, 

Clarence B. Robinson 
Enclosure. 



[Note: This model for the mechanical arrangement of the letter 
must be strictly adhered to in this course.] 



95 



[Semi-Formal Letter] 

735-739 Walnut Street, 
Syracuse, New York, 
January 12, 1919. 

Mr. John B. Smith. 

523 Harrison Street. 

Syracuse. New York. 

Dear Mr. Smith: 

We have been in communication with Mr. George 
C. Williams, 123 Maple St. Syracuse, regarding the equipment 
of his new house at 654 Elm Streeet with screens. 

Mr. Williams has concluded to place his order 
with us and has submitted some data for our guidance, but we 
cannot furnish him an estimate until we have full and accurate 
dimensions of the openings to be screened. Please, therefore, see 
Mr. Williams at your earliest opportunity and transmit to us 
promptly the required information. 

It would be well to point out the special advan- 
tages of our Superior Copper Mesh No. A5. 

As it appears that Mr. Williams is a contractor, 
make every effort to clinch the order. 

Very sincerely yours, 
The Wade Manufacturing Company. Inc. 

Allen H. Black, Manager. 



96 



EXERCISES IN BUSINESS LETTER-WRITING 

1. Write a one-page letter to the Registrar of Syracuse Univer- 
sity, stating that you are about to enter college and desire 
information as to the entrance requirements in the College of 
Applied Science. 

2. Write a two-page letter ordering goods from an out-of-town 
house, tabulating the items neatly in the center of the page, 
and giving specific instructions as to grade, quantity, price, and 
shipment. 

3. Write a two-page letter acknowledging the receipt of goods 
in damaged condition, detailing the nature and amount of 
damage, and politely requesting an adjustment. 

4. Write a two-page letter of application for a summer posi- 
tion, giving detailed information as to your age, education, 
experience, and other special qualifications. 

5. In answer to the following advertisement, write a letter 
asking for a personal interview: 

WANTED. A graduate of an engineering school, with at 
least two years' experience in structural iron work, as assistant 
superintendent of our building operations in Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Salary at start $150. Satisfaction guarantees permanent 
employment and advancement. Address H. C. Odell, The 
McCabe Construction Co., New York. 

6. Criticize and rewrite the following letter: 

745 Chestnut Street, 

Baltimore, Maryland, 
Sept. 30, 1912. 
Mr. H. A. Merriman, Esq. 

311 South Albemarle Avenue, 
Trenton, N. J. 
Dear Mr. Merriman, 

Your favor of the 4th inst. went astray and we have just 
received same. In reply we beg to state that we are unable at 
the present time to fill the order because we are out of the par- 
ticular kind of brush you desire. Would add, however, that we 
have recently placed an order for a new supply in the hands of 
the manufacturers and they should be here not later than the 
25th. .We will hold your order till that date, and if we are not 
disappointed, will forward you by mail the necessary brushes 
within two days. 

Hoping that this arrangement will prove entirely satisfactory 
to you and that we may have your valued orders in the future, 
we remain 

Very Respectfully Yours, 

The Burhans Brush Co. 
P. S. The price of the brushes will be $10 per dozen. 

97 



X 
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION 

Definition 

BESIDES the pure exposition of abstract subjects, such as 
theories, principles, and processes, a course in technical 
English involves also some consideration of another type 
of discourse, which, for want of a better name, is called technical 
description. 

Every technical student is called upon from time to time to 
picture in words, or, as is commonly the case, to explain in words, 
the appearance, construction, and purpose of some concrete 
mechanical appliance, either for its own sake or as a necessary 
preliminary to the clear exposition of its operation. The student 
will at once discover that, from the very nature of things, this new 
type of discourse is really a hybrid, representing a combination 
of the method of description as ordinarily defined and that of 
exposition as we have studied it. 

The following outline will enable one to place technical descrip- 
tion more definitely as a type of discourse — to fix its purpose 
and principles. 

Exposition and Description Contrasted 

Exposition Description (General) 

Purpose: Primarily to be Purpose: Primarily to 

clear, to give information, to interest, 

explain. Appeal: To the imagination 

Appeal: To the understand- and the emotions, 

ing, to the intellect, to reason. Content: Concretions — per- 

Content: Abstractions — prin- sons, things, places (physical), 

ciples, theories, processes, etc. Method: Presentation of a 

Method: Explanation by in- mental picture by particulars 

stances, comparison, contrast, and details, comparison and 

cause and effect, argument, etc. contrast. 

98 



The Method of Description 

1. The Point of Vieiv. Just as the expository writer must 
limit his subject and invent a topic sentence to insure unity and 
coherence, so too must the descriptive writer fix his angle of 
vision. Unless the camera is firmly placed, a slight jar will blur 
the picture. The point of view may be either a physical stand- 
point, or less often, a mental attitude; it may be either fixed or 
moving (if direction is clear). 

2. Nucleus of Description. Every description must contain near 
the beginning a nucleus of description, or a fundamental image, 
to give the first general impression of the object or scene as a 
whole. In function this nucleus is analogous to the outline 
sentence or paragraph in exposition and is an indispensable 
means to coherence as well as a valuable aid to unity. It 
presents in rough outline the framework of the object, together 
with the number and order of its principal parts, and some idea 
of their general relationship. A comparison with some simple, 
familiar object, as a geometric figure or a. letter of the alphabet, 
often puts the nucleus graphically before the reader. 

3. Amplification by Details. The next step in the development 
of the description is the filling in of the general outline by means 
of particulars and details. Comparison and contrast of the 
unfamiliar with the familiar will enable the reader to understand 
the object better by relating it to something within his experi- 
ence. Again the geometric figure is a convenient and effective 
device because it is stated in a few words, and is instantly clear. 
In general treatment, literary description is largely selective; 
technical description, inclusive. 

4. Movement. The movement is usually from the general to 
the specific, from large to small, or from near to remote, though 
in some forms of literary description it is from remote to near. 
In either case, the direction must be clear and consistent. 

5. Diction. To enable the reader to visualize readily, picture- 
making words — words of shape, size, color, sound, motion, num- 
ber, etc. — should be used. In other words, specific, vivid terms 
are required. 



99 



Literary and Technical Description Contrasted 



Literary Description 

Purpose: To interest, to 
entertain. 

Appeal: Primarily to 
one's esthetic sense, to the 
imagination and the emo- 
tions, especially through 
the eye. 

Content: Persons, land- 
scape, works of art — the 
beautiful ; generally con- 
crete, but often dealing 
with abstract moods or 
atmosphere. 

Method: Usually physical 
point of view; general out- 
line; amplification or elab- 
oration by detail — gen- 
erally selective, leaving 
much to the imagina- 
tion; personal, idealistic, 
individual. 



Techmcal Description 

Purpose: To give information,, to 
be clear. 

Appeal: To the intellect, to the 
understanding, with less regard for 
actual visualization. 

Content: Concrete, physical ob- 
jects — technical apparatus, build- 
ings, plans, etc., where the emphasis 
is on the practical value. 

Method: Usually mental point of 
view; general outline and working 
principle, followed by a full, exact 
description and explanation of parts 
and their relationships; emphasis 
on fact, photographic realism. Gen- 
eralized description, or the descrip- 
tion of a class or type rather than 
of a particular thing, approximates 
exposition. A technical description 
is the same to every person; in the 
extreme type, is so full and explicit 
as to make reproduction possible. 
Diagrams often required. 

Examples of Point of View and Nucleus of Description 

1. "In three parts of the visible circle whose centre is this 
spire I discern cultivated fields, villages, white country-seats, . . . 
On the fourth side is the sea. . ." — Hawthorne, Sights From a 
Steeple. 

2. "Through the heavy door whose bronze network closes the 
place of his rest, let us enter the church itself . . . there opens 
before us a vast cave, hewn out into the form of a cross, and 
divided into shadowy aisles by many pillars." — Ruskin, "Interior 
of St. Mark's," Stones of Yenice. 

3. "It [the Yosemite Valley] may be roughly likened to a 
gigantic trough hollowed in the mountains, nearly at right angles 
to the irregular trend. . ." — Whitney, Yosemite Guide-Book. 

4. "Below us, by some trick of eyesight, the country had grown 
concave, its horizons curving up like the rim of a shallow bowl — 
a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea-fog, but to our eyes with 
a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow." 

100 



5. "If we survey Byzantium in the extent which it acquired 
with the august name of Constantinople, the figure of the Im- 
perial city may be represented under that of an unequal triangle. 
The obtuse point, which advances towards the east and the 
shores of Asia, meets and repels the waves of the Thracian 
Bosphorus. The northern side of the city is bounded by the 
harbour; and the southern is washed by the Propontis, or Sea 
of Marmora. The basis of the triangle is opposed to the west, 
and terminates the continent of Europe."— Gibbon, Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. xvii. 

6. "The reader will observe that the Ducal Palace is arranged 
in the form of a hollow square, of which one side faces the 
Piazetta, and another the quay called Riva del Schiavoni; the 
third is on the dark canal called Rio del Palazzo, and the fourth 
joins the Church of. St. Mark." — Ruskin, Stones of Venice. 

7. "We shall then see stretched at our feet a number of valleys, 
not fewer than eight, diverging from the point on which we are 
supposed to stand, like spokes from the nave of a wheel. First, 
we note, lying to the southeast, the vale of Langdale, . . ." — 
Wordsworth, Guide to the Lakes, sec. I.) 

8. "A confined triangle, perhaps fifty miles its greatest length, 
and thirty miles its greatest breadth; two elevated rocky 
barriers, meeting at an angle; three prominent mountains, com- 
manding the plain, — Parnes, Pentelicus, and Hymettus; an 
unsatisfactory soil; some streams, not always full; — such is 
about the report which the agent of a London company would 
have made of Attica." — Newman, "Ancient Athens," Historical 
Sketches. 

9. "Manhattan Island is like a tongue of land; the tip is the 
Battery; the blade is in Central Park, and the roots are in 
Harlem." 

10. "The Bay of Monterey has been compared by no less a 
person than General Sherman to a bent fishing-hook." — Steven- 
son, Across the Plains. 

11. "The submarine portion [of a boat torpedo] has the typical 
cigar shape of the Whitehead torpedo, and contains both the 
destructive and the propulsive equipment. . . The surface hull 
is shaped like the hull of an ordinary surface boat . . . " — 
Engineering News, March 17, 1910. 

12 "Imagine Paris taken off like a cover; a bird'seye view of 
the subterranean network of sewers will represent on either 
bank a sort of huge branch engrafted upon the river." — Victor 
Hugo. 

13. "The door-spring consists of a horizontal bronze cylinder, 
from the middle of which there projects upward an approximately 
like cylinder, bearing a jointed arm. pivoted and parallel to the 
top of the second cylinder." 

101 



14. "Suppose an inverted capital Y: Lancaster at the foot of 
the letter; Liverpool at the tip of the right branch; Manchester 
at the tip of the left ..." 

15. "The steam-engine consists in essence of a cylinder con- 
taining a piston which is driven back and forth within the 
cylinder by the expansive force of steam alternately admitted 
and released from the opposite ends of the cylinder." [Note that 
this nucleus contains a statement of the basic principle of opera- 
tion which explains the reason for the peculiar construction of 
the object described.] 

16. "The throttle valve, as will be seen by reference to Fig. 2, 
consists of a flat seat, circular in form, having a semicircular 
opening through it, and a valve whose face is a counterpart of 
the valve seat." [The diagram or cut in such a case, however, 
is merely auxiliary; it is used to reinforce the nucleus and must 
usually remain secondary to the word image. When cuts are 
used, the reference must be unmistakably clear; the method is 
usually to refer by letter or number (enclosed within parentheses, 
as (C) or (4) ) to specific parts.] 

17 "The hull is of steel and is divided into five watertight 
compartments by four transverse bulkheads." — International 
Marine Engineering, July, 1909. 

18. "In shape and size this latter instrument [the annunciator 
of an alarm system] resembles an ordinary mantel-clock. The 
indications are given by devices on the face. . . ." — Popular 
Science Monthly, vol. xviii, p. 56. 

Transitions 

Transition or connection in technical description is effected 
largely by means of phrases which locate parts with reference 
to parts already placed. The following is a suggestive list: 

To the right. 

ImmediateJy to the left. 

On the west wall. 

Just south of the centre of the east wall.-' 

Facing the east wall. 

Parallel with the longer axis of the room. 

Diagonally across the room. 

Adjoining this room on the south. 

Meeting the opposite wall at right angles. 

In the farther corner on the right. 

Suspended three feet from the center beam. 

Abutting into the room from the west wall, near its southern 
extremity. 

102 



On the north wall, three feet from the floor and adjacent to the 
east wall, . . 

In the nearer left corner. 

At the junction of. 

Occupying a central position. 

Equi-distant from the two corners and from themselves. 

Opening into the room from the north wall. 

Dividing the wall space into panels measuring. 

Confronting the visitor as he enters the first door. 

Mounted upon this as a base. 

Supporting the superstructure. 

Extending upward from the base. 

Projecting four inches from the standard at an angle of thirty 
degrees downward. 

This horizontal bar is bolted at the centre to the front side of 
the standard, near the top. 

Rising perpendicularly from the outer edge of this plate. 

Occupying the intervening space. 

Its horizontal axis mounted upon inverted-V-shaped standards. 

Coinciding with its upper surface. 

Parallel with the plane of its base. 

Intersecting it at right angles. 

Ending in a conical cap. 

Piercing this shelf at its centre. 

Projecting horizontally beyond the side to the distance of three 
feet. 

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION 
The Syracuse University Rowing Tank 

A Student Theme 

THE invention of the rowing tank at Syracuse University was 
the result of a long felt need and of careful study by rowing 
experts. The credit for its design and practical construction 
is due Mr. J. Harte Cuningham, superintendent of the University 
buildings, and Mr. James A. Ten Eyck, coach of the University 
navy, who toiled faithfully together that the crew might be 
given indoors the benefit of rowing, under out-door conditions. 
The patented plans appeared in 1910 and the tank was installed 
in the new Gymnasium. 

The principle which underlies the operation of this unique 
invention is that, whereas in actual out-door rowing, the water 
remains stationary and the boat moves by the power applied to 
the oars; in the rowing tank, on the other hand, the boat remains 

103 



Bow: 



*3 









/tttia: 



M 

c 



P 



M 



g«3 
— 1 — 



K- 



— h— 







Still W&tcr 
"Piq.E 



104 



stationary while the water is forced by propellers past the boat 
and the speed of the current is increased by the power applied 
at the oars. 

The important parts of the rowing apparatus are as follows: 
(1) the boat, (2) the water tank, (3) the water propellers, and 
(4) the source of power for operating the latter. 

The boat (Pig. 1) greatly resembles an eight-oared racing shell 
without the delicate bow and stern gunwales. It is made of 
more substantial materials than those used in a racing shell, 
but is equipped with sliding seats, footcups, riggers, oar -locks, 
and cars, all identical with those of a regulation shell. It is 
40 feet long by 2 feet 4 inches wide and floats in the middle of 
the tank, where it is held at each end by wrought-iron rods 
equipped with springs fastened to the ends of the tank. As 
these springs allow the boat plenty of play, while still holding 
it in position, the boat rocks realistically when the oarsmen do 
not sit exactly in the middle. 

The tank itself is 60 feet long, 31 feet, 4 inches wide, and 7 
feet deep. It might be noted here that a tank 3 feet deep would 
be of sufficient depth. Since the portions of the tank on the two 
sides of the boat are similarly constructed, we need examine only 
one side. The portion between the boat and the side of the tank 
(Fig. 1 and 2) is partitioned off into three distinct compartments 
or sluiceways extending lengthwise down the tank. The middle, 
open compartment (M) is for the current of water which rushes 
from the bow end (B) of the tank to the stern end (S). The other 
two compartments (C and K), which are completely covered 
with boards, are the return paths of the water which goes down 
the middle. It is by means of these three compartments that 
the same water is used over and over in one continuous circuit. 

This construction is shown somewhat more clearly by a cross- 
section diagram (Fig. 2). The return compartment (C), adja- 
cent to the boat, is 3 feet wide and 3 feet deep. The outer 
return compartment (K) is 4 feet 4 inches wide, and 3 feet deep. 
The middle compartment (M) is 7 feet wide and its depth 
decreases from 3 feet 5 inches adjacent to K, to one inch adjacent 
to C. The boat floats on a space of water 2 feet 8 inches \*ide 
between the return compartments (C and Ci). As all the water 
under the boat and under these sluiceways is stationary, it can 
be seen now that the tank need not have been more than 3 feet 
in depth. As it is, however, all the construction is supported by 
vertical beams extending upwards from the bottom of the tank. 
These, of course, are not seen by the observer. 

The propellers used in forcing the water around in tnis con- 
tinuous circuit past either side of the boat are double-blade, 
screw propellers like those used in motor boats. The individual 
blades of these, measuring from the center of the shaft to the 
tip, are 7 inches in length. There are in all, fourteen of tlese 

105 



propellers in the tank, one at the bow end of each of the middle 
sluiceways (P and Pi, Fig. 1), and three propellers located at 
equal intervals in each of 'the four return sluiceways. These 
propellers hurl the water at a current of 6 or 7 miles an hour, 
and when there are eight good oarsmen in the boat, the added 
power from their oars increases the speed of the current to 
eight miles an hour. 

By use of Figure 1. let us follow a drop of water as it goes 
around this circuit. It starts at the bow propellers (P), where 
it is forced down the middle sluiceway (M). On its way down 
this open compartment, the various port oars take hold of it 
for an instant and hurl it on to the next until it finally comes 
to the end of the middle sluiceway (M). Here it meets the 
contrivance which turns it in its course and sends it back 
through the return sluiceways. This turning contrivance, when 
viewed from the top, looks like two letter U's, placed side by 
side to form a rounded W. The drop of water strikes this at 
X and is divided into two parts, one-half being swirled around 
into the return sluiceway (C) and the other half into the return 
compartment (K). Through these return paths, these two part? 
of the drop are each forced on their way by the three propellers 
in each compartment. They finally come to the bow end (B) 
of the tank, where they are swirled around by another* W-like 
contrivance and re-united at P to continue on their way as 
before. 

We will now consider briefly the sources of power for operat- 
ing these propellers. Most of the power comes from a horizontal- 
drive, single-cylinder steam engine, capable of generating fifty 
horsepower. The power is transmitted by belts from the engine 
shaft to a secondary shaft, and from this to four separate auxi- 
liary shafts. These are located each about 4 feet above the four 
propeller shafts in the return sluiceways. The transmission 
between these auxiliary and propeller shafts is effected by chains 
and sprocket wheels, which are covered by a box-like arrange- 
ment. 

The remaining power required is supplied from a direct-current 
electric motor (L Fig. 1), which generates 5 horsepower. The 
pcwer is transmitted by chains and sprocket wheels, boxed in 
as before, to each of the two propellers located at the end of 
the middle sluiceways. 

The whole apparatus has been a marked success as the best 
substitute for out-door rowing yet devised. 



Note: Though not perfect in detail, this theme adequately 
il ustrates the fundamental principles of a simple technical 
description. 



106 



XI 
THEME TOPICS 

TOPICS FOR SHORT TALKS BEFORE THE CLASS 

TOPICS should be restricted where necessary. In the broader 
subjects the student should confine himself to the one phase 
in which he is particularly interested. 
Similar topics may be chosen; consult the instructor. 

1. The honor system for college examinations. 

2. Municipal publicity. 

3. The dangers of free trade. 

4. The advantages of free trade. 

5. The forces that make for world peace. 

6. Industrial education in the public school. 

7. Is the examination a true test of efficiency? 

8. Military training in college. 

9. The workmen's compensation law explained. 

10. Short professional courses are unsatisfactory. 

11. The chief value of intercollegiate athletics. 

12. A word for intra-mural athletics. 

13. The city should control tree-planting in its streets. 

14. Rifle-shooting as a college sport. 

15. Electricity in a thunderstorm. 

16. Comparative values of Zeppelins and aeroplanes in warfare. 

17. A union station for Syracuse. 

18. The functions of the state employment bureau. 

19. The educational value of moving pictures. 

20. The origin of printing. 

21. Practical prison reform. 

22. Unionism justified. 

23. An injustice of unionism. 

24. The immigrant in politics. 

25. The immigrant versus the American laborer. 

26. Charles Robert Darwin's chief contribution to science. 

, TOPICS FOR SHORT EXPOSITIONS. 

1. The use of lime in soils. 

2. How to row. 

3. Welding by electricity. 

4. The chief value of military training to the student. 

107 






5. The weather barometer explained. 

6. How to analyze an essay. 

7. Definition of gravity. 

8. How to lay a cement sidewalk. 

9. Why it hails. 

10. The principle of the phonograph. 

11. Amateur photography as a recreation. 

12. My favorite magazine (or author). 

13. Two kinds of coherence in English composition. 

14. How to fell a tree. 

15. The chief danger in the use of slang. 

16. How to make a whistle. 

17. Courtesy in business correspondence. 

18. The disciplinary value of work. 

19. When charity is a mistake. 

20. The formation of coal. 

21. My conception of a gentleman. 

22. The best nucleus for a library. 

23. The best place to fish. 

24. Am I morally bound to keep a promise? 

25. What is a bond? 

26. How to temper steel. 

27. The value of a diary. 

28. How to transplant a tree. 

29. The function of the foliage of a tree. 

30. Technical and scientific discriminated and illustrated. 

31. The principal charm of Mark Twain's works. 

32. How to weigh authorities. 

33. Why and what is a prefaced 

34. In what sense is English a science? 

35. How to measure distance to an inaccessible point. 

36. Trolling for pickerel. 

37. Why I do not favor military training at college (the chief 

reason). 

38. Why read the daily editorial columns? 

39. The place of the typewriter in modern business. 

40. A definition of good taste. 

41. The cause of thunder. 

42. The best test for milk. 

43. How to take the diameter of a tree. 

44. Running a survey. 

45. What is freedom of speech? 

108 



TOPICS FOR LONG EXPOSITIONS 

1. Saponification. 

2. A new use of electricity. 

3. Political advertising (Take one definite phase of the sub- 

ject). 

4. Is the aeroplane a practical machine of war? 

5. The advantage of the Barge Canal to eastern New York. 

6. The great danger in our present immigration system. 

7. The bird as the farmer's friend. 

8 Commission government would improve conditions in Syra- 
cuse. 

9. The advantage of municipal control of street railways. 

10. The need of the conservation of water-power. 

11. Lake improvement in Syracuse. 

12. The need of an American merchant marine. 

13. The influence of the suburban trolley lines on country life. 

14. The value of a crew to the University. 

15. The advantages of concrete over other forms of masonry 

in modern building. 

16. Crop rotation. 

17. The advisability of free admission to the State Fair. 

18. The influence of politics on our public school system. 

19. The newspaper as a molder of public opinion. 

20. The most effective method of advertising. 

21. The value of advertising to industry. 

22. Park improvement in Syracuse. 

23. Harmony in a band. 

24. The value of the industrial department of a railroad. 

25. The value of a trained forester to the city park commission. 

26. The forester as a conserver of our natural water supply. 

27. Syracuse is an ideal location for a university. 

28. Why attend a university instead of a small college? 

29. The influence of commercialism on our educational policies. 

30. The menace of the pubic dance hall. 

31. The value of municipal playgrounds. 

32. The chief problems encountered in the construction of the 

bridge. 

33. Is a union railroad station in Syracuse feasible? 

34. The advantages of the State Fair to Syracuse. 

109 



35. The necessity of careful inspection and supervision in ex- 

tensive engineering operations. 

36. Over-production as a cause of business failures. 

37. On office efficiency often depends the success or failure of 

the corporation. 

38. Business integrity pays. 

39. Is the free bread line justified? 

40. The chief immediate benefit of forestry practice. 

41. Shall we continue to build frame houses? 

42. The relation of forestry to the paper industry. 

43. The chief dangers of unionism. 

44. The advantages of unionism. 

45. The board of trade as a publicity commission. 

46. The chief benefits of university life to the engineer. 

47. Must the engineer (or the forester) divorce himself from 

art? 

48. The construction of a coffer-dam. 

49. The importance of a knowledge of geology in engineering 

construction. 

50. What does literature hold for the engineer (or the forester) ? 

51. The demand for the chemical engineer. 

52. Success in engineering is often due to ready adaptation. 

53. The value of a farm power plant. 

54. The most effective means of fighting the army worm. 

55. Converting worn-out woodland into arable fields. 

56. When and how to cut timber. 

57. How determine the value of a large tract of woodland? 

58. The most satisfactory way of locating and laying out a 

lumber camp. 

59. Making the waste products pay. (Select one industry). 

60. An argument for state control of large forest tracts. 






110 



TOPICS FOR LONG TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS 



NOTE. — A technical description is of little value unless de- 
tailed and specific. In order, therefore, to give a clear concep- 
tion of the object described, select a topic with which you are 
familiar , restrict it according to the requirements of the theme, 
and treat it thoroughly. For the purposes of a short theme, some 
part of one of the larger objects named below may be described. 
It is generally inadvisable, however, for the freshman to under- 
take the description . of any appliance exceedingly complex. He 
will be most successful with the simple and the familiar. The 
following, is merely a suggestive list. 



1. The steam shovel or 

dredge. 

2. The automatic block 17. 

signal. 18. 

3. The most improved ele- 

vator. 19. 

4. The fire alarm system 

of 

5. The four-cylinder gaso- 20. 

line engine. 

6. The steam pile-driver. 21. 

7. The gasoline fire-engine- 

and-hose-cart. 22. 

8. The moving picture ma- 23. 

chine. 24. 

9. The stereoscopic camera. 25. 

10. The cornet. 

11. The Y-level. 

12. The most improved auto- 26. 

matic rifle. 27. 

13. The titan crane. 

14. The centrifugal snow- 

plow. 28. 

15. The engine lathe. 

16. The steam heating sys- 29. 



tern (from furnace to 
radiator). 

The blast furnace. 

The multipolar direct- 
current generator. 

The telegraph system 
(transmitting, and re- 
ceiving stations). 

The compound micro- 
scope. 

The electric advertising 
sign (a complex type) . 

The seismograph. 

The motorcycle. 

The Greek Doric temple. 

The concrete Water-Gap 
Bridge (structural fea- 
tures). 

The mowing machine. 

The ice-boat (for sail- 
ing or for breaking 
ice). 

The improved dirigible 
balloon. 

The linotype machine. 



Ill 



30. The electric traveling 

crane. 53. 

31. The modern theatre build- 

ing. 54. 

32. The phonograph. 55. 

33. The railroad drawbridge 

(restrict to one type). 

34. The hand printing press. 56. 

35. The railroad mail coach 57. 

(exterior and interior). 58. 

36. A modern library building 59. 

(interior). 60. 

37. The central telephone sta- 

tion. 61. 

38. A reinforced concrete dock. 62. 

39. A modern lighthouse. 63. 

40. The most improved street 64. 

car. 65. 

41. The modern safe-deposit 66. 

vault. 

42. The electric locomotive 67. 

(limit to the main struc- 
tural features). 68. 

43. The third-rail electric 69. 

railroad system. (Do 

not confuse with ex- 70. 

position). 71. 

44. The motor coal truck. 

45. The steam turbine. 72. 

46. The motor race-boat. 73. 

47. The double-acting force 74. 

pump. 

48. The battleship turret. 75. 

49. The control mechanism 76. 

of an automobile. 

50. The Straight-Line En- 77. 

gine. 78. 

51. The calculagraph. 

52. The most improved ven- 79. 

tilating system (see 



43). 

Hydraulic mining ap- 
paratus. 

A model lumber mill. 

The automatic fire-ex- 
tinguishing system 
(see 43). 

A modern dairy barn.. 

The modern band saw. 

The hydroplane. 

The nursery hothouse 

The gasoline orchard- 
sprayer. 

The electric furnace. 

The dendrometer. 

A refrigeration plant. 

The welding machine. 

The stone-crusher. 

The Syracuse rowing 
tank. 

Automobile differential 
gear. 

The cash register. 

The electric automobile 
starter. 

The coke oven. 

An ideal post-office in- 
terior. 

The siphon lock. 

A seed-extracting plant. 

An electric incubator and 
brooder. 

The cream separator. 

The automatic railroad 
switch. 

The addressograph. 

The oil-burning traction 
engine. 

An acetylene lighting plant 
for the home. 



112 



80. 

81. 
82. 
83. 

84. 
85. 
86. 

87. 



90. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 



The control mechanism of 96. 
the street car. 

The thermostat. 97. 

The chain-testing, machine. 

A model small passenger 98. 
station. 99. 

A modern hennery. 

A paper-cutting machine. 100. 

The hydrostatic press. 

A coast life-saving station. 101. 

A farm windmill. 102. 

The steam hammer. 103. 

A simple planing machine. 104. 

The carbureter. 105. 

The hydraulic jack. 

A rock-drilling machine. 106. 

A permanent forest look- 
out station. 

A fish hatchery. 107. 



An electric sharpening 

machine. 

The stamp-canceling ma- 
chine (P. O.) 

A hydraulic power plant. 

A powerful marine 

searchlight. 

A modern passenger- 
freight ferry-boat. 

A soldering machine. 

A down-draft forge. 

A drill press. 

The railroad handcar. 

A grain elevator (build- 
ing). 

Green Lake and its form- 
ation ( topographical 
features). 

A baking plant. 



113 



XII. 

READING 

IN this day of seemingly untrammeled material progress, 
there comes to every engineer the challenge of leadership, 
insistent and alluring. If he is to meet this challenge ably 
and happily, if he is not to be all his days a mere tool in the 
hands of society, — he must acquaint himself with the great 
realm of thought which lies outside the narrow confines of his 
special field of investigation, encompassing, if not engulfing, it. 
He must be familiar with the great characters and the great 
events of history; he must keep abreast of his own times. He 
must know men, and know them intimately, not by direct con- 
tact alone, for his individual experience may be very limited, 
but through the experiences of other and greater men, men who 
have lived and thought and achieved in his day and yesterday. 
He must have vision; he must be sensible to the needs and the 
wrongs of society, and quick and sure in providing a remedy. 
He must serve men, but he must also inspire men, lifting them 
by his counsel and his example to a higher plane of action and 
of thought. This larger conception of his responsibility should 
fire the soul of every man who has been entrusted, as has 
the engineer, with the tremendous task of making the world a 
safe and comfortable place in which to live. 

If, then, the engineer is to be actuated by this lofty idealism, 
if he is to relate himself properly to his profession and his 
fellows, he must open himself to all the elevating influences 
his environment offers, but especially must he seek the compan- 
ionship and the guidance of books. For, said Carlyle, "All that 
mankind has done, thought, gained, or been, is lying in magic 
preservation in books." But not only do they record the past; 
they also predict the future. In their pages we find reflected 
the noblest aspirations of the race as it confidently faces its to- 
morrow, aspirations to motivate the present generation, but to 
come to their full fruition perhaps only in the next. Pondering 
these things, there is not one of us who need not reproach 
himself with the moments which have slipped irrevocably away 
in idleness when he might have been in communion with the 
great minds of books, fitting, himself to do more acceptably his 
given work. In an age of books like the present, no one can 
escape the moral obligation of being well-read. 

114 



"Thou fool! to seek companions in 2 crowd! 

Into thy room, and there upon thy knees, 
Before thy bookshelves, humbly thank thy God, 

That thou hast friends like these!" 

LIST OF APPROVED READING 



Addison, J., and Steele, R. 
Alden, R. M. 

Allen, J. L. 
Arnold, M. 

Bacon, F. 
Bagehot, W. 
Bailey, L. H. 
Bennett, A. 
Benson, A. C. 
Berkeley, G. 
Bowman, Bredvold, 

Greenfield, and 

Weirick 
Bradley, A. C. 

Briggs, L. R. 
Bryce J. 
Burroughs, J. 



Carlyle, T. 

Carpenter and Brewster 
Canfield, J. H. 
Chesterton, G. K. 
Crothers, S. M. 
Cunliffe and Lomer 



ESSAYS 

The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers 
Readings in English Prose of the 

Eighteenth Century 
The Blue Grass Region of Kentucky 
Essays in Criticism 
Culture and Anarchy 
Essays 

Literary Studies 
The Holy Earth 
Essays 

From a College Window 
Principles of Human Knowledge 



Essays for College English 

Shakespearean Tragedy 

Oxford Lectures on Poetry 

College Life (R.L.S.) 

The American Commonwealth 

Literary Values 

Sharp Eyes and Other Papers (R.L.S.) 

Birds and Bees (R.L.S.) 

Afoot and Afloat (R.L.S.) 

A Bunch of Herbs and Other Papers 

(R.L.S.) 
Locusts and Wild Honey 
Heroes and Hero Worship 
Sartor Resartus 
Modern English Prose 
The College Student and His Problems 
Heretics 

The Gentle Reader 
Writing of To-day (Journalistic 

Prose) 



115 



DeQuincey, T. 



Duncan, Beck, and 

Graves 
Eason and Weseen 
Eliot, C. W. 
Emerson, R. W. 



Faraday, M. 

Piske, J. 

Foerster, Marfchester and 

Young 
Foerster and Pierson 
Fulton, M. G. 

Galsworthy, J. 
Gardiner, J. H. 
Garnett, R. 
Gates, L .E. 

Hazlitt, W. 
Holmes, O. W. 
Howells, W. D. 
Husband, J. 
Huxley, T. H. 
Irving, W. 
James, H. 

Kurtz, Cory, Blanchard, 

and MacMinn 
Lamb, C. 



Lockwood, F. C. 
Lowell, J. R. 
Macaulay, T. B. 

Palmer, G. H. 



The English Mail Coach 
Confessions of an Opium Eater 
Autobiographical Sketches 

Prose Specimens 

English, Science and Engineering 

The Training for an Effective Life 

Essays, two series 

English Traits 

Representative Men 

The Conduct of Life 

Experimental Researches in Electricity 

Essays, Historical and Literary 

Essays for College Men 

American Ideals 

College Life, Its Conditions and 

Problems 
The Inn of Tranquility 
The Bible as Literature 
Essays of an Ex-Librarian 
Three Studies in Literature 
Studies and Appreciations 
Essays 

The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table 
Literary Friends and Acquaintances 
America at Work 
Lay Sermons 
The Sketch Book 
Partial Portraits 
Portraits of Places 

Essays in Exposition 

Essays of Elia 

Liberty, Peace, and Justice (R.L.S.) 

The Freshman and His College 

Essays 

Lord Clive 

Warren Hastings 

S elf-Cultivation in English (R.L.S.) 

116 



Pater, W. 



Rice, R. 

Roosevelt, Theodore 



Ruskin, J. 



Smith, C. A. 
Spencer, H. 
Steeves and Ristine 

Stephen, L. 
Stevenson, R. L. 



Tanner, W. M. 

Thackeray, W. M. 

Thoreau, H. D. 
Tyndall, J. 

Waddell and Harrington 
Warner, C. D. 

Wilson, Woodrow 



Appreciations 

Imaginary Portraits 

The Renaissance 

College and the Future 

The Winning of the West 

The Great Adventure 

Sesame and Lilies 

Modern Painters 

Crown of Wild Olives 

Seven Lamps of Architecture 

What Can Literature Do For Me? 

Education 

Representative Essays in Modern 

Thought 
Hours in a Library 
Across the Plains 
Memories and Portraits 
Travels with a Donkey 
An Inland Voyage 
Virginibus Puerisque 
Essays and Essay-Writing (Atlantic 

Monthly) 
Roundabout Papers 
Lectures on the English Humorists 
Walden 

Fragments of Science 
Michael Faraday as a Discoverer 
Addresses to Engineering Students 
In the Wilderness (R.L.S.) 
My Summer in a Garden 
Back-log Studies 
Addresses 



Allen, J. L. 

Austen, Jane 
Barrie, J. M. 

Bennett, A. 
Blackmore, R. D. 
Bronte, Charlotte 



NOVELS 

The Choir Invisible 
The Kentucky Warbler 
Pride and Prejudice 
The Little Minister 
A Window in Thrums 
Clayhanger 
Lorna Doone 
Jane Eyre 
Villette 



117 



Bulwer-Lytton, E. L. 
Conrad, J. 

Clemens, S. L. 
Cooper, J. F. 

Crawford, F. M. 
De Morgan, W. 
Dickens, C. 



Eliot, G. 



Galsworthy, J. 



Garland, H. 
Gaskell, Mrs. 
Hardy, T. 



Harte, Bret 
Hawthorne, N. 



Howells, W. D. 
Irving, W. 
James, H. 



Kingsley, C. 



The Last Days of Pompeii 

Youth 

Lord Jim 

(See Mark Twain below.) 

The Last of the Mohicans 

The Spy 

Saracinesca 

Joseph Vance 

A Tale of Two Cities 

Bleak House 

Christmas Stories 

Adam Bede 

The Mill on the Floss 

Middlemarch 

Romola 

Fraternity 

The Country House 

The Man of Property 

The Patrician 

The Dark Flower 

Beyond 

The Little Man and Other Satires 

They of the High Trails 

Cranford 

Far from the Madding Crowd 

The Woodlanders 

The Return of the Native 

Tess of the D'Urbervilles 

The Luck of Roaring Camp 

The Marble Faun 

The Scarlet Letter 

The House of Seven Gables 

Twice-Told Tales 

The Rise of Silas Lapham 

The Alhambra 

Roderick Hudson 

The Ambassadors 

The Golden Bowl 

Westward Ho 

Hypatia 

118 



Kipling, R. 



London, J. 
Meredith, G. 

Poe, E. A. 
Reade, C. 
Scott, W. 



Stevenson, R. L. 



Thackeray, W. M. 



Trollope, A. 
Twain, Mark 



Barrie, J. M. 
Bjornson, B. 
Browning, R. 



Galsworthy, J. 



Goldsmith, O. 



Plain Tales from the Hills 

Soldiers Three 

Jungle Book, first and second 

The Light that Failed 

The Call of the Wild 

The Egoist 

The Ordeal of Richard Feverel 

Tales 

The Cloister and the Hearth 

The Heart of Midlothian 

Kenilworth 

The Antiquary 

Quentin Durward 

Old Mortality 

Guy Mannering 

Kidnapped 

Merry Men 

Treasure Island 

The Master of Ballantrae 

The Wrecker 

Ebb Tide 

David Balfour 

Henry Esmond 

Vanity Fair 

Pendennis 

The Newcomes 

Barchester Towers 

Tom Sawyer 

Huckleberry Finn 

PLAYS 

Selected Plays 

Beyond Our Powers 

A Blot on the 'Scutcheon 

Colombe's Birthday 

In a Balcony 

Justice 

Strife 

The Pigeon 

The Eldest Son 

She Stoops to Conquer 



119 



Hauptmann, G. 
Ibsen, H. 



Kennedy, C. R. 
Maeterlink, M. 



Masefield, J. 
Moody, W. V. 

Pinero, A. W. 

Rostand, E. 

Shakespeare, W. 
Shaw, G. B. 

Sheridan, R. B. 

Sudermann, H. 
Synge, J. M. 

Wilde, O. 

Yeats, W. B. 
Zangwill, I. 



The Sunken Bell 

The Weavers 

The Doll's House 

Hedda Gebler 

The Master Builder 

The Servant in the House 

The Blind 

The Blue Bird 

The Intruder 

The Tragedy of Nan 

The Great Divide 

The Faith Healer 

The Second Mrs. Tanqueray 

The Gay Lord Quex 

L'Aiglon 

Chanticlere 

Plays 

Plays, Pleasant and Unpleasant 

Plays for Puritans 

The School for Scandal 

The Rivals 

Magda 

The Riders to the Sea 

The Shadow of the Glen 

The Play-boy of the Western World 

The Ideal Husband 

Lady Windermere's Fan 

The Importance of Being Earnest 

The Land of Heart's Desire 

Deidre 

The Melting Pot 



BIOGRAPHY AND LETTERS 



Arnold, M. 
Bessemer, Sir H. 
Browning, R. 
Carlyle, T. 
Cromwell, O. 
Darwin, C. 
Dickens, C. 
Edison, T. 



Letters 

Autobiography 

Life by G. K. Chesterton 

Letters 

Life by T. Roosevelt 

Life and Letters by F. Darwin 

Life by J. Forster 

Life by Dyer and Martin 

120 



Emerson, R. W. 



Erasmus 
Franklin, B. 
Gibbon, E. 
Huxley. T. 
Irving, W. 
Johnson, Samuel 
Lincoln. A. 
Lowell. J. R. 
Macaalay ,T. B. 
Mill, J. S. 
Palmer, Alice F. 
Pepys, S. 
Ruskin, J. 
Shakespeare, W. 
Smiles, S. 
Stevenson, R. L. 

Tennyson, A. 
Walpole, H. 
Washington, G. 



Life by 0. W. Holmes 
Emerson in Concord, by E. W. Emer- 
son 
Life by J. A. Froude 
Autobiography 
Autobiography 

Life and Letters by L. Huxley 
Life by C. D. Warner 
Life by Boswell 
Life by N. Hapgood 
Letters 

Life by G. 0. Trevelyan 
Autobiography 
Life by G. H. Palmer 
Diary 
Letters 

Life by S. Lee 
Lives of the Engineers 
Letters 

Life by G. Balfour 
Memoir by his Son 
Letters 
Life by H. C. Lodge 



POETRY 



Arnold, Matthew 

Browning, Robert 

Bryant, William Cullen 

Burns, Robert 

Byron, George Gordon Noel, 

Lord 
Carman, Bliss 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo 
Field, Eugene 
Gray, Thomas 
Keats, John 
Kipling, Rudyard 
Lanier, Sidney 
Longfellow, Henry 

Wadsworth 



Lowell, James Russell 

Masefield, John 

Moody, William Vaughn 

Moore, Thomas 

Noyes, Alfred 

Palgrave, F. T., The Golden 

Treasury (R. L. S.) 
Poe, Edgar Allen 
Riley, James Whitcomb 
Shelley, Percy Bysshe 
Tennyson, Alfred 
Whitman, Walt 
Whittier, John Greenleaf 
Wordsworth, William 
Yeats, William Butler 



NOTE: The foregoing list of reading was originally suggested 
by a somewhat similar list prepared several years ago by the English 
Departments of Syracuse University. 

121 



PERIODICALS 

EXGIXEEBIXG 

The following periodicals are to be had at the Library (Room 
23) of the College of Applied Science: 

American Machinist Engineering News-Record* 

Electrical Railway Journal Industrial Management* 

Electrical Engineering Machinery 

Electrical World* Power 

Engineering and Mining Journal Valve World 

*Every engineer should subscribe to one of these three 
journals. 

Fobestby 

The Library (Room 100-101) of the New York State College 
of Forestry receives regularly a large number of periodicals 
on forestry and allied topics. Among them are The Journal, of 
Forestry (technical). American Forestry (popular), The Indian 
Forester (India), The Quarterly Journal of Forestry (British), 
and several lumber trade journals. The first is recommended as 
of the greatest value to the student of technical forestry. 

Both engineers and foresters will find much interesting and 
valuable material in The National Geographic Magazine. 

Gexebal 

All the standard periodical iterature is on file in the Periodical 
Room of the University Library and is available to all students 
of the University. 



122 



INDEX 



PAGE 

ACCURACY 42-55 

Accuracy cautions 43-46 

Accuracy exercises 46-52 

Accuracy, importance 

of 42-43 

Addition, simple ; con- 
nectives 77 

Address and date of let- 
ter :.. 90 

Addressee material of 

letter 90 

Adjective phrase 53, 58 

Adjective, unnecessary.... 58 

Adberb, unnecessary 58 

Adverbial phrase ...53, 58 

Agreement, grammatical 43 
Ambiguity, see Accuracy 43-46 
Amplification by details, 

description 99 

And - construction, the 

loose 52-55 

Antecedent trouble 43 

Application, letter of 94 

Apposition 35, 53, 57 

Argument 69-70 

ASSIGNMENTS 12-16 

Biography and letters, 

reading list 120-121 

Body of the letter 90 

Body or development of 

the theme 76 

Brevity, see Condensa- 
tion 56-66 

Brevity in the letter 92 

BUSINESS CORRES- 
PONDENCE 87-97 

Capitalization 36 

Causal clause 34, 53 

Cause and effect 52-54,70 

Clearness, see Accuracy 42-52 
Clearness in the letter.... 91 



PAGE 

COHERENCE 69, 76-80 

Coherence, exercise in..79-80 
Coherence in descrip- 
tion 102-103 

Coherence in the sent- 
ence, see Accuracy. .43-46 

Colloquialism 84 

Colon 33 

Comma 33-35 

Comma, omission of 46 

Comparison 70, 78 

Comparison, false and in- 
complete 45 

Complex sentence 53 

Complimentary closing, 

letter 90 

Compound conjunctions 

and prepositions 58 

Compound sentence 52-55 

Concessive clause 34, 53 

Conciseness, see Conden- 
sation 56-66 

Conciseness in the letter 92 

Conclusion 77, 67-69 

Conclusion of the letter.. 90 

CONDENSATION 56-66 

Condensation cautions 57-59 
Condensation exercises 59-66 
Condensation in the let- 
ter 92 

Conditional clause 53 

Conjunctions 58, 77-79 

Connection, devices of._. .77-79 
Connectives in descrip- 
tion 102-103 

Contents of the letter 93 

Contrast 53, 54, 70, 78 

Conviction in the letter 93 
COORDINATION AND 

SUBORDINATION ..52-55 

Coordination, false 45 

Correction of themes 9 



123 



PAGE 

Courtesy in the letter.... 92 
Credit in course work.— 7 
Critical marks inter- 
preted 10-11 

Dangling modifiers 44 

Deduction 70-74 

Defining paragraph 69 

Definition 85 

Description 69 

Description, technical 98-106 
Description, theme 

topics 111-113 

Details, development by 70, 99 

Developing paragraph 69-70 

Diction 81-86 

Diction in description.. 99 

Dictionary - 81-85 

Differentia in definition.. 85 

Direct address 35 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE 

COURSE 7-16 

Drama, reading list ....119-120 

Elliptical constructions..44-45 

Emphasis -.69, 79 

See also Induction 71-72 

Enclosure in the letter.... 90 
Endorsement of themes 8 

Envelope 89, 91 

Essays, reading list 115-117 

Exposition 69-70, 98 

Expository theme 

topics 107-110 

False comparison 45 

False coordination 45 

Foote-rule, the rule of 

the - 33 

Force in the letter 93 

Fundamental image 99 

Genus in definition 85 

Geometric problem, para- 
graph likened to 67-68 

Gerund, dangling 44 

Gist sentence 68 

Good use 84 

Grammatical agreement.. 43 



PAGE 

Huxley on Deduction 

and Induction 72-74 

Hyphen 35 

Illustrations, develop- 
ment by 70 

Induction 70-74 

Infinitive phrase 53 

Initial test of paragraph 

unity r 68 

Instances, development 

by 70 

Introduction 69, 76 

Italics, see note 10 

Laboratory period 7 

Letter-writing 87-97 

Letter, language of the 91 
Letter, mechanics of 

the 89-91 

Letter of application 94 

Letter stationery 89 

Letter-writing, exer- 
cises in 97 

Letters, biography and, 

reading list 120-121 

Literary description 100 

Localism 84 

Locative clause 53 

Loose coordination, exer- 
cises in 54-55 

Loose coordination, to 

remedy 53-54 

Manuscript 8 

Misplaced modifiers 44 

Model letter 95 

Model outline ....76-77 

Model paragraph 69 

Models for theme correc- 
tion 9-10 

Modifiers, dangling and 

misplaced 44 

Movement in description 99 

Narration 69 

Neatness, in themes 8 

in the letter 89 

Nominative absolute ......35, 53 



124 



PAGE 

Noun clause 53 

Novels, reading list ....117-119 
Nucleus of description. .99-102 

Omission, comma to in- 
dicate 34 

Omission of necessary 

words 44 

Oral English topics 107 

Organization, exercise in 79-80 
Outline 69, 76-77, 99 

PARAGRAPH, THE ■: 67-75 

Paragraph exercise .... 75 
Paragraphs in the let- 
ter 94 

Paragraphs, types of....69-70 

Parallel construction 45, 79 

Parenthetic construc- 
tions 34-35 

Participial phrase .'. 53 

Participle, dangling 44 

Particularization, connec- 
tives 78 

Particulars and details, 

development by 70 

Parts of the letter, the..89-90 

Periodicals 122 

Place, change of, connec- 
tives 78 

Plays, reading list 119-120 

Poetry, reading list 121 

Point of view in de- 
scription 99-102 

Prepositional phrase 53 

Prepositions, compound.. 58 
Prevision, planning the 

theme 8,76-77 

Prize in English com- 
position 11 

Pronoun reference, faulty 43 

Pronouns, relative 57 

Provincialism 84 

PUNCTUATION 32-41 

Punctuation exercises. .36-41 

Punctuation rules 33-36 

Purpose clause 54 

Purpose, connectives 78 



PAGE 

READING, list of ap- 
proved reading 114-122 

Recitation, method of 7 

Reference, connectives.... 77 

Relative clauses 34, 54, 57 

Repetition, connection by 79 
Repetition, development 

by 70 

Repetition, useless 57 

Restrictive and non-re- 
strictive modifiers. .34, 46 

Result clause 34, 54 

Result, connectives 78 

Revise, revision 8, 9 

Rewrite 9 

Rowing tank, descrip- 
tion of the 103-106 

Rule of the foot-rule 33 

Salutation of the letter.. 90 

Semicolon 33 

Semi-formal letter 91, 96 

Sentence, study of the....42-66 

Series, connectives 77 

Series, punctuation of a 34 
Signature in the letter.... 90 

Simple sentence 53 

Slang 81-84 

<So-construction, the loose 52-55 
Sources, acknowledgment 

of 8 

SPELLING 17-31 

Importance of 17-18 

Rules 18-20 

Student's list of mis- 
spellings 26-31 

Words often misspelled 21-26 
Stationery, theme and 

letter 8, 89 

Subjects for themes ....107-113 
Subordination, coordina- 
tion and 52-55 

Summary 69 

Synonyms, study of 84-86 

Syracuse University 

Rowing Tank, The 103-106 



125 



PAGE 

TECHNICAL DESCRIP- 
TION 98-106 

Temporal clause 34, 54 ■ 

Theme paper 8 

Themes, kind, etc 7 

Theme topics 107-113 

Time, change of, connec- 
tives 78 

Topic sentence 67-71. 99 

Transitions ....69, 77-79, 102-103 
Two Kinds of Education 
for Engineers, out- 
line 76-77 

Two-page letter 90 



PAGE 

Ultimate test of para- 
graph unity 68 

Unity of paragraph 68 

Usage, good 84 

Verbs, omission of 34, 44 

Verbs, useless 58 

Vocabulary 81-86 

Vulgarism 84 

WORDS 81-86 

Word study, exercises 

in 85-86 

Wordiness 56-66 

Words in description.. 99 
Wrong word 46 



126 



